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Upper surface (upper side of wing): low pressure Recall discussion on exactly why this is physically Recall discussion on how to show this mathematically
Upper surface (upper side of wing): low pressure Lower surface (underside of wing): high pressure
Upper surface (upper side of wing): low pressure Lower surface (underside of wing): high pressure Flow always desires to go from high pressure to low pressure
FINITE WINGS
Front View
FINITE WINGS
FINITE WINGS
FINITE WINGS
The official National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report of October 26, 2004, stated that the cause of the crash was the overuse of the rudder to counter wake turbulence
http://www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/AA587/default.htm
An aircraft of a lower wake vortex category must not be allowed to take off less than two minutes behind an aircraft of a higher wake vortex category If the following aircraft does not start its take off roll from the same point as the preceding aircraft, this is increased to three minutes
Chord line
Two Consequences: 1. Increase in drag, called induced drag (drag due to lift) 2. Angle of attack is effectively reduced, aeff as compared with V
Relative Wind, V
ageometric
ageometric: what you see, what you would see in a wind tunnel Simply look at angle between incoming relative wind and chord line
aeffective
aeffective: what the airfoil sees locally Angle between local flow direction and chord line Small than ageometric because of downwash The wing-tips have caused this local relative wind to be angled downward
ageometric: what you see, what you would see in a wind tunnel Simply look at angle between incoming relative wind and chord line aeffective: what the airfoil sees locally Angle between local flow direction and chord line Small than ageometric because of downwash ainduced: difference between these two angles Downwash has induced this change in angle of attack
Relative Wind, V
Relative wind gets tilted downward under the airfoil LIFT is still always perpendicular to the RELATIVE WIND
Drag is measured in direction of incoming relative wind (that is the direction that the airplane is flying) Lift vector is tilted back Component of L acts in direction parallel to incoming relative wind results in a new type of drag
3 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATIONS
1. Local relative wind is canted downward, lift vector is tilted back so a component of L acts in direction normal to incoming relative wind 2. Wing tip vortices alter surface pressure distributions in direction of increased drag 3. Vortices contain rotational energy put into flow by propulsion system to overcome induced drag
a eff a
Finite Wing
CL cl CD cd
Di L sin a i Di La i
Local flow velocity in vicinity of wing is inclined downward Lift vector remains perpendicular to local relative wind and is tiled back through an angle ai Drag is still parallel to freestream Tilted lift vector contributes a drag component
Di q S
May be calculated from Inviscid theory: Lifting line theory
b AR S
b
Low AR
CL ai AR
2 CL CL Di La i L q S AR AR 2 Di CL q S AR
C D ,i
2 CL AR
CL ai AR 2 CL C D ,i AR
C D ,i
C eAR
2 L
DRAG POLAR
C C D cd eAR
Total Drag = Profile Drag + Induced Drag
2 L
cd
1 2 L W V SCL 2
2 CL C D cd eAR
U2
Cruise at 70,000 ft Air density highly reduced Flies at slow speeds, low q high angle of attack, high CL U2 AR ~ 14.3 (WHY?)
F-15
Flies at high speed (and lower altitudes), so high q low angle of attack, low CL F-15 AR ~ 3 (WHY?)
EXAMPLE: U2 SPYPLANE
2 CL C D cd eAR
Cruise at 70,000 ft Out of USSR missile range Air density, , highly reduced In steady-level flight, L = W
1 2 L W V SCL 2
As reduced, CL must increase (angle of attack must increase) AR CD U2 AR ~ 14.3
U2 stall speed at altitude is only ten knots (18 km/h) less than its maximum speed
C C D cd eAR
Flies at high speed at low angle of attack low CL Induced drag < Profile Drag Low AR, Low S
2 L
1 2 L W V SCL 2
U2 CRASH DETAILS
http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/dl/U2Incident/u2documents.html NASA issued a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had gone missing north of Turkey I must tell you a secret. When I made my first report I deliberately did not say that the pilot was alive and well and now just look how many silly things [the Americans] have said.
NASA U2
Wingspan: 79.8 m AR: 7.53 GTOW: 560 T Wing Loading: GTOW/b2: 87.94
Wingspan: 68.5 m AR: 7.98 GTOW: 440 T Wing Loading: GTOW/b2: 93.77
AIRPORT ACCOMODATIONS
Airplanes must fit into 80 x 80 m box
Thinner wing near tip delay onset of high-speed compressibility effects Retain aileron control
1 2 L W V SCL 2
2 CL C D cd eAR
U2
Cruise at 70,000 ft Air density highly reduced Flies at slow speeds, low q high angle of attack, high CL U2 AR ~ 14.3
F-15
Flies at high speed (and lower altitudes), so high q low angle of attack, low CL F-15 AR ~ 3
Helios: Proof-of-concept solar-electric flying wing, designed to operate at extremely high altitudes for long duration, remotely piloted aircraft, AR = 31:1 Helios Prototype designed to fly at altitudes of up to 100,000 feet on single-day atmospheric science and imaging missions, as well as perform multi-day telecommunications relay missions at altitudes from 50,000 to 65,000 feet. Helios Prototype set world altitude record for winged aircraft, 96,863 feet, during a flight in August 2001 Flight at 100,000 ft. is quite similar to that expected in the Martian atmosphere, so data obtained from the record altitude flight will also help to build NASA's technical and operational data base for future Mars aircraft designs and missions
NOMINAL FLIGHT
Wingspan: 247 ft, Chord: 8ft, Wing Thickness: 12% of Chord, Wing Area: 1,976 ft2 Airspeed: 19 to 27 MPH cruise at low altitudes, up to 170 MPH at extreme altitude Altitude: Up to 100,000 ft., typical endurance mission at 50,000 to 70,000 ft. Aspect Ratio: 30.9
This view of the Helios Prototype from a chase helicopter shows abnormally high wing dihedral of more than 30 feet from wingtip to the center of the aircraft that resulted after the Helios entered moderate air turbulence on its last test flight. The extreme dihedral caused aerodynamic instability that led to an uncontrollable series of pitch oscillations and over-speed conditions, resulting in structural failures and partial breakup of the aircraft.
With finite wings, there is an induced angle of attack The angle you see the angle the finite wing sees
a geom a eff a i
ageom= aeff + ai
Lift curve for a finite wing has a smaller slope than corresponding curve for an infinite wing with same airfoil cross-section Figure (a) shows infinite wing, ai = 0, so plot is CL vs. ageom or aeff and slope is a0 Figure (b) shows finite wing, ai 0 Plot CL vs. what we see, ageom, (or what would be easy to measure in a wind tunnel), not what wing sees, aeff
Finite Wing
1. Effect of finite wing is to reduce lift curve slope Finite wing lift slope = a = dCL/da 2. At CL = 0, ai = 0, so aL=0 same for infinite or finite wings
SUMMARY
Induced drag is price you pay for generation of lift CD,i proportional to CL2 Airplane on take-off or landing, induced drag major component Significant at cruise (15-25% of total drag) CD,i inversely proportional to AR Desire high AR to reduce induced drag Compromise between structures and aerodynamics AR important tool as designer (more control than span efficiency, e) For an elliptic lift distribution, chord must vary elliptically along span Wing planform is elliptical Elliptical lift distribution gives good approximation for arbitrary finite wing through use of span efficiency factor, e