Ch 1.

Amplifiers
Ideal OP Amps
Basic OP Amp Circuit Blocks
Analog Computation
Nonlinear OP Amp Applications
OP Amp Considerations
Guarding
Passive Filters
Active Filters
VCO(Voltage Controlled Oscillator)
Chap 0 2
Function of Amplifiers
Amplifiers provides
GAIN
Filtering, Signal processing, Correction for
Nonlinearities
Temperature
Pressure
Flow
Motion
.
Sensor
Signal
Conditioning
Circuitry
Digital
Computer
Chap 0 3
Ideal OP Amps
Transfer Function = Output / Input
Voltage Amp TF (Gain):

Usually A
v
> 1
OP Amp is preferred
Easy to use in circuit designed compared to
discrete Transistor circuits
o
v
i
v
A
v
=
Chap 0 4
Ideal OP Amps (Cont.)
Assumptions
Open loop Gain = Infinity
Input Impedance Rd = Infinity
Output Impedance Ro = 0
Bandwidth = Infinity
Infinite Frequency Response
v
o
=0 when v
1
= v
2
No Offset Voltage
Chap 0 5
Ideal OP Amps (Cont.)
Note
v
0
= A(v
2
v
1
)
If v
0
= , A = (Typically 100,000)
Then v
2
v
1
= 0 v
2
= v
1

Since v
2
= v
1
and Rd =
We can neglect the current in Rd
Rule 1
When the OP Amp is in linear range the two inputs are
at the same voltage
Rule 2
No Current flows into either terminal of the OP Amp
Chap 0 6
Basic OP Amp Circuit Blocks
Inverting Amplifier
Noninverting Amplifier
Unity-Gain Amplifier
Differential Amplifier
Instrumental Amplifier
The Electrocardiogram Amplifier
Chap 0 7
Inverting Amplifier
From Rule 1
v- = v+ = 0
From Rule 2 & KCL
i
i
+ i
f
= 0 i
i
= -i
f

From Ohms law
i
i
= v
i
/ R
i , ,
i
f
= v
o
/ R
f

v
i
/ R
i
= - v
o
/ R
f

v
o
/ v
i
= -R
f
/ R
i
Inverting Amp Gain
-R
f
/ R
i
Inverting Amp with
Gain = - Rf / Ri
Virtual Ground
Chap 0 8
Inverting Amplifier (Cont.)
Linear Range
By Power Supply
Voltage
Input Impedance
Low (Ri)
Increasing Ri
Decreasing Gain
Increasing Gain by
increasing Rf
But there is practical
limit
Saturation
Chap 0 9
Why High Input Impedance ?
Concept of Loading
Sensor

Sensor amplitude
. Frequency
Digital

Open Loop Output
Vx
Voltage Drop by Load
Vy = Vx
Vx Rx / (RL + Rx)
Let RL >> Rx
Vy = Vx
Amp

Vx
Rx
Vy
RL
x
Chap 0 10
Noninverting Amplifiers
Noninverting Amp
Gain = (Rf + Ri) / Rf
By Rule 2
Vo = If (Rf + Ri)
Vi = If Ri
Vo = Vi (Rf + Ri)/Ri
Gain: Vo/Vi = 1 + Rf / Ri
Gain > 1, Always
Input Impedance
Very Large (Infinite)
By Rule 1
Vi
Chap 0 11
Unity-Gain Amplifier
Homework #2-1
Verify that the Gain of
Unity-Gain Amp is 1
Vo = Vi
Applications
Buffer amplifier
Isolate one circuit from
the loading effects of a
following stage
Impedance converter
Data conversion System
(ADC or DAC) where
constant impedance or
high impedance is
required
Chap 0 12
Differential Amplifiers
Combination of Inverting and Noninverting Amp
Can reject 60Hz interference
Electrocardiogram amplifier
Differential
Noninverting
Instrumentation
Chap 0 13
Differential Amplifiers (Cont.)


Gain of Differential Amp
By Rule 2
V5 = I2 * R2
V2 = I2 * R1 + V5 = V5 * R1 /R2
+ V5
V5 = R2 * V2 / (R1 + R2)
By Rule 1
V1 = R1 * I1 + V5
V5 = R2 * I1 + V6
V6 = (V2 V1) * R2 / R1
Chap 0 14
Differential Amplifiers (Cont.)
CMV (Common Mode Voltage)
If V1 = V2, then V6 = 0
CMG (Common Mode Gain) = 0
DG(Differential voltage Gain)
If V1 = V2, then V6 = (V2-V1)*(R2/R1)
In practice, CMG = 0
CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
Measure of the ability to reject CMV
CMRR = DG / CMG
The Higher CMRR, the better quality
Typically, 100 ~ 10,000
60Hz noise common to V1 and V2 can be rejected
Chap 0 15
Instrumentation Amplifiers
One OP Amp Differential Amplifier
Input Impedance is not so High
Good for Low impedance source
Strain gage Bridge
Bad for High impedance source
Instrumentation Amplifier
Differential Amp with High Input Impedance
and Low Output Impedance
Two Noninvering Amp + One Differential Amp
Chap 0 16
Instrumentation Amplifiers (Cont.)
Instrumentation Amp =
Noninverting Amp +
Differential Amp
Homework #2-2
Show that
DG = (V1-V2) / (V3-V4)
= (2*R4 + R3) / R3
V6 = (V3-V4)*DG*R2 / R1
First Stage CMRR
CMRR = DG / CMG = DG
Overall CMG = 0
High CMRR
High Input Impedance
Gain is adjustable by changing
R3
Chap 0 17
The Electrocardiogram Amplifier
< 0.2 V
Gain = 40
Maximize CMRR
High Pass Filter
>0.05Hz
Low Pass Filter
< 100Hz
Gain = 32
Chap 0 18
Analog Computation
Digital Signal Processing is preferred
Flexibility
Easy to Change
Elimination of hardware
Analog Signal Processing
Is preferred when DSP consumes too much
time
Chap 0 19
Inverter and Scale Changer
Inverting Amp with
Gain = - Rf / Ri
Inverter
Rf / Ri = 1
Inverter and Scale
Changer
Proper choice of Rf / Ri
Application
Use of inverter to scale
the output of DAC
Chap 0 20
Adders (Summing Amplifiers)
Adder
Inverter with Several
inputs
Vo = -Rf(V1/R1 + V2/R2
+ + Vn/Rn)
If = I1 + I2 + In
I1 = V1/R1,
Vo = -If * Rf
Rf determines overall
Gain
Ri determines
weighting factor and
input impedance
Chap 0 21
Integrator
Homework #2-3
Show that
Drawbacks
Vo will reach saturation
voltage, if Vi is left
connected indefinitely
Integrator operates as
an open-loop amplifier
for DC inputs
1
0
0
1
t
i ic
v v dt v
RC

= +
}
Chap 0 22
Practical Integrator





Reset
S1 Closed, S0 Open
Inverter
C is initialized to Vr
Integrate
S1 Open, S0 Closed
Hold
S1 Open, S0 Open
Keeps Vo constant
Read and Process
Controlled By
Relay or
Solid State Switch or
Analog Switch
Chap 0 23
Differentiators
Homework #2-4
Show that

Drawbacks
Instability at High
frequencies
Practical Differentiator
To Stable
0
i
dv
v RC
dt
=
0 0
i
R
R
A C e
=
Chap 0 24
Comparators
Compare Two Inputs
Vi > Vr
Vo = -Vs
Vi < Vr
Vo = Vs
Drawbacks
If Vi = Vr + small noise
Rapid fluctuation
between Vs
Chap 0 25
Comparators with Hysteresis
Positive Feedback
Hysteresis loop
Can remove the effect
of Small Noise
Reduce Fluctuation
Homework #2-5
Show that
1
1 2
( )
S r
r r r
V V R
V V V
R R

+ A = +
+
1
1 2
( )
S r
r r r
V V R
V V V
R R

A = +
+
Chap 0 26
Rectifiers
Precision Half
Wave Rectifier


Precision Full
Wave Rectifier

Limiters
Chap 0 27
OP Amp Considerations
Effects of Nonlinear characteristics
Compensation
Undesirable Oscillation at High frequency
Add external Capacitance according to Spec sheet
GBW (Gain Bandwidth Product)
Gain Bandwidth = Constant (Typically 1MHz)
For Noninverting Amp: Bandwidth = GBW / Gain
Input Offset Voltage
Practical OP Amp
Zero input Does NOT give Zero output
Input Offset Voltage
Applied input voltage to obtain Zero output
Nulling the offset Voltage
Adding External Resister according to Spec sheet
Chap 0 28
OP Amp Considerations (Cont.)
Input Bias Current
Practical OP amp
Current flowing into the terminal is NOT Zero
To keep the input Tr of OP amp turned on
Causes errors proportional to feedback network R
To minimize errors
feedback R should be low (<10KO)
Slew Rate
Maximal rate of change of amplifier output voltage
Ex: Slew rate of 741 = 0.5 V / s
Time to output change from 5V to 5V = 20 s
To Minimize slew rate problem
Use OP amp with smaller external compensating C
Chap 0 29
OP Amp Considerations (Cont.)
Power Supply
Usually 15V
Linear Range 13V
Reducing power supply voltage
Results reduced linear range
Device does not work < 4V
Different OP Amps
Bipolar Op Amps
Good input offset stability
Moderate input bias current and Input resistances
FET
Very Low input bias current and Very High Input resistances
Poor Input offset voltage stability
Chap 0 30
OP Amp Considerations (Cont.)
Common OP amps, Typical Specifications
1986 Prices
Chap 0 31
Guarding
Elimination of Surface Leakage Currents
Elimination of Common Mode Signals

Very important in practice
But skip in this course
Chap 0 32
Passive Filters
Passive Circuits
Contains only passive elements
Registers, Capacitors and Inductors
Examples
Bridge Circuit
Voltage Divider
Filters
Filters
Eliminate unwanted signal from the loop
Low Pass, High Pass, Band Pass, Notch,
Chap 0 33
Passive first-order Low pass Filter
Pass desired Audio
signal and reject
undesired RF
Order of Filter
Number of C and L
Homework #2-6
Show that


Plot Magnitude and
Phase plot (Bode plot)
Meaning of e
C
1
,
1
o
i
V
RC
V j
t
et
= =
+
Chap 0 34
Passive first-order High pass Filter
Pass desired High
frequency signal and
reject undesired low
frequency signal
Homework #2-7
Show that


Plot Magnitude and
Phase plot (Bode plot)
Meaning of e
C
,
1
o
i
V j
RC
V j
et
t
et
= =
+
Chap 0 35
Passive second-order Low pass Filter
To increase the
attenuation of transfer
function
Order of Filter
Number of C and L
Homework #2-8
Show that



Meaning of Quality factor



2
1
( / ) (2 / ) 1
1
,
2
o
i c c
c
V
V j j
R C
LC L
e e , e e
e ,
=
+ +
= =
1 , >
1 , =
1 , <
1
, 3
2
c
Q dBBW
e
e
, e
= = A =
A
Chap 0 36
Passive second-order High pass Filter
To increase the
attenuation of transfer
function
Order of Filter
Number of C and L
Homework #2-9
Show that







2
2
( / ) (2 / ) 1
1
,
2
o
i c c
c
V
V j j
R C
LC L
e
e e , e e
e ,
=
+ +
= =
1 , >
1 , =
1 , <
Chap 0 37
Active First-order Low Pass Filter
Inverting Amp +
Feedback Capacitor
Identical frequency
response with Passive
filter
Very Low Output
impedance
Negligible Loading
Effect
Chap 0 38
Active First-order High Pass Filter
Inverting Amp + Input
Capacitor
Identical frequency
response with Passive
filter
Very Low Output
impedance
Negligible Loading
Effect
Chap 0 39
Active High-order Filters
Low Pass Filters




High Pass Filters
Chap 0 40
Bandpass and Band-reject Filters
Butterworth Filters
Maximally Flat Magnitude response in pass band
High Attenuation Rate
Chebyshev Filters
Maximum Attenuation Rate
Ripple in pass band
Bessel Filters
Maximally flat time delay in response to step input
Attenuation Rate is very gradual
Chap 0 41
Filter Design Table
C when e
0
= R
0
= 1
Chap 0 42
Filter Design Example
Low pass five-pole Butterworth filter with a corner
frequency of 200Hz and input resistance of 50KO
Economic Solution = 3
rd
order + 2
nd
order
Desired R and C ?
C
1A
= (e
0
R
0
C
0
) / (e R)
= 1x1x1.753 / 2tx200x50K = 27.9 nF
C
2A
= 21.6 nF, C
3A
= 6.7 nF, C
1B
= 51.5 nF, C
2B
= 4.9 nF

Chap 0 43
VCO(Voltage Controlled Oscillator)
VCO = Voltage to
Frequency(V/F)
Converter
VCO converts an input
voltage to a series of
output digital pulses
whose frequency is
proportional to the
input voltage
Applications
ADC
Digital Transmission
Telemetry
Digital Voltmeter
Chap 0 44
VCO (Cont.)
Module form
Better linearity, Lower Gain drift, Higher full-scale
frequencies than IC
Monolithic IC form
Less expensive, Small size
Lower drift, Better flexibility of frequency range
Examples
LM331
Low cost VCO from National Semiconductor
Maximum nonlinearity 0.01% over 1 ~ 100KHz
CD4046B
PLL contains VCO
Maximum nonlinearity 1.0% over 1 ~ 400MHz
Chap 0 45
PLL(Phase Locked Loop)
VCO is commonly used in
PLL
Applications
Communications
Radar
Time and frequency
control
Instrumentation system
Control loop
Goal
Minimize z(t)
s(t) = r(t)
Change r(t) until z(t)=0
s(t) can be obtained
By reading r(t)
Homework #2-10

PLL

Chap 0 46
VCO Interfacing
Output of VCO
Digital pulses whose
frequency is
proportional to input
voltage
# of pulse / Duration
Duration
Controlled by
Sampling Gate
# of Pulse
Counted in Counter
More on Passive Circuits
Divider
Bridge
Filter : See Chapter 1

Sensor Time Response
Chap 0 48
Divider Circuit
Convert Register
Variations to Voltage
Variations
Output Voltage
Vo = {R2 / (R1 + R2)} Vs

R1, R2




R1
R2
Vs
Vo
Chap 0 49
Divider Circuit: Drawbacks
Vo is not linearly changed
Ex: Vs = 5V, R1 = 1KO, R2 = 0 ~ 1KO(Sensor)





Output Impedance(R1 || R2) is not so High
Large Power Consumption
Both R1 and R2 dissipate power
Sensor 0

R1, R2 Insulation
R2
Vo
1K 500
Vs/2
Vs/3
Chap 0 50
Divider Circuit: Example
R1 = 10KO, R2 = (4K ~ 12KO), Vs = 5V
Maximum Vo = 5 {12 / (10+12)} = 2.73V
Minimum Vo = 5 { 4 / (10 + 4)} = 1.43V
Maximum Z = (10K || 12K) = 120/22 KO
Minimum Z = (10K || 4K) = 40/14 KO
Maximum Power = (Vo)
2
/R2
= (2.73)
2
/12K = 0.62mW
Minimum Power = (1.43)
2
/4K = 0.51mW
Chap 0 51
Bridge Circuit
Convert Impedance
variance to Voltage
variation
Basic DC Wheatstone
Bridge
Eo = Ea Eb
Ea = {R3/(R1 + R3)} E
Eb = {R4/(R2 + R4)} E
Eo = {(R2R3 R1R4) /
(R1+R3)(R2+R4) } E
Null Condition (Eo = 0)
R1R4 = R2R3
E
Example (R1 is sensor)
Eo

Null Condition
R2
R1 R2
R3 R4
E
a b Eo
Chap 0 52
Using Galvanometer as a Null Detector
Thevenins Equivalent
R
TH
= R1 || R3 + R2 || R4
= R1R3/(R1+R3)
+ R2R4/(R2+R4)
V
TH
= {(R2R3-R1R4) /
(R1+R3)(R2+R4)} E
= Eo
I
G
= V
TH
/ (R
TH
+R
G
)

Example
R1=R2=R3=2KO, R4
= 2.05KO, R
G
= 50O,
V=5V
I
G
= -15.0A
R1 R2
R3 R4
G
E
a b
V
TH
R
TH
R
G
I
G
a
b
Chap 0 53
Bridge Sensitivity
Output (Approximation)
Eo = (AR/4R)E Eo = (AR/2R)E Eo = (AR/R)E
Sensitivity
Eo/AR = E/4R Eo/AR = E/2R Eo/AR = E/R

Accuracy of Approximation
AR < 0.05R, then 98% Accurate
AR < 0.1R, then 95% Accurate
R R
R R+AR
G
E
R R
R+AR
G
E
R+AR
R+AR
G
E
R+AR
R+AR
R+AR
More Sensitive
Chap 0 54
Bridge Resolution
Detector Resolution
Example
R1=R2=R3=R4=120O, E=10V
If resolution of Detector is 10mV, Then
resolution of R4 ?
10mV = {R3 / (R1+R3)}E - {R4 / (R2+R4)}E
R4 = 119.52O
AR = 120 119.52 = 0.48O
R4 120 0.48 (119.52 ~ 120.48)
Null Detect
Chap 0 55
Lead Compensation
Bridge at Control room
and Sensor in Remote
Plant
Eo = {R/(R+R)} E
{(R+RL)/(R+R+RL)} E
= 0
Compensation using 3
Lead Lines
Eo = {R/(R+R+RL)} E
{(R)/(R+R+RL)} E
= 0
R R
R
R
G
E
RL
RL
R R
R
R
G
E
RL
RL
Chap 0 56
Potential Measurement using Bridge

Galvanometer
Null
Then Ex ??
Ec = Ea + Ex
AE = Ec Eb
= - (Eb Ea Ex)
= Ex
+ {R3/(R1+R3)}E
- {R4/(R2+R4)}E
At Null (AE = 0)
Ex = {R4/(R2+R4)}E
- {R3/(R1+R3)}E
R1 R2
R3 R4
E
a b Ex
G
c
Chap 0 57
AC Bridges
Eo = {Z3/(Z1+Z3)}E
- {Z4/(Z2+Z4)}E
Null Condition
Z1Z3 = Z2Z4

Example
Z1 = 1KO
Z2 = 2KO
Z3 = R(1KO) + C(1F)
Z4 = R4 (?) + C4(?)
Z3 = R + 1/(jeC)
= 1K j/(1 x e)
Z1Z3=Z2Z4
Re1 + j*Im1 = Re2 +
j*Im2
R4 = 2KO
C4 = 0.5F
Z1 Z2
Z3 Z4
G
E
a b
Chap 0 58
Summary of Bridge
Convert variation of resistance to variation
of voltage
Nonlinear response to a linear variation of
resistance
Assumed Linear in a small range
Chap 0 59
Sensor Time Response
Desired Response
Step Response
No Sensor Gives Ideal
Response
Model
Zero order
First order
Second order
Real Application
Assumed Zero Order or
First Order
Model or Table is used
Chap 0 60
Zero Order Response
b(t) = Kc(t-td) + bd
td = bd = 0
b(t) = K c(t)
Ideal with Gain K

td = 0
b(t) = K c(t) + bd
Biased

bd = 0
b(t) = K c(t-td)
Time Delayed
b(t)
b(t)
t
Kcf
Kci
b(t)
t
Kcf+bd
Kci+bd
b(t)
t
Kcf
Kci
td
Chap 0 61
First Order Response

bi : Initial Sensor
Output
bf : Final Sensor
Output
t : Sensor Time
Constant
To Reduce Transient
Error
t << 1
Modeling the response
Mathematic
Table Look Up

t = t


t = 5t
/
( ) ( )[1 ]
t
i f i
b t b b b e
t
= +
t
63%
Transient Steady State
/
( ) ( )[1 ]
t
i f i
b t b b b e
t
=
1
( ) [1 ]( )
0.6321( )
i f i
f i
b t b e b b
b b

=
=
( ) 0.993( )
i f i
b t b b b =
Chap 0 62
Example: 1st Order Response
Temperature sensor
Linear TF: 33mV/C, with t=1.5sec
Find output at 0.75sec after input 2041C
From
= 20C x 33mv/C = 660mV
= 20C x 33mv/C = 1353mV
mV
b(0.74) = 932.7 mV
932.7 mV / 33 mV / C = 28.3C
Error = 41C 28.3C = 12.7C
/
( ) ( )[1 ]
t
i f i
b t b b b e
t
= +
(0)
i
b b =
( )
f
b b =
/1.5
( ) 660 (1353 660)[1 ]
t
b t e

= +
Chap 0 63
Second Order Response

R(t) : Transient Output
a : Output Damping
Constant
fn : Natural Frequency
Ro : Amplitude

0
( ) sin(2 )
at
n
R t R e f t t