Climatic Adaptation: Photosynthesis

Each method of photosynthesis has Advantages and disadvantages Depends on the climate C4 plants most adapted to:
High light intensities
High temperatures Limited rainfall

C3 plants better adapted to

Cold (below 25C) High moisture

CAM plants better adapted to extreme aridity

CAM occurs in 23 families of flowering plants Also found among nonflowering plants 1

How Cells Release Chemical Energy

Chapter 8

Impacts, Issues:

When Mitochondria Spin Their Wheels

More than forty disorders related to defective mitochondria are known (such as Friedreichs ataxia); many of those afflicted die young

Overview of Carbohydrate Breakdown Pathways

Photoautotrophs make ATP during photosynthesis and use it to synthesize glucose and other carbohydrates Most organisms, including photoautotrophs, make ATP by breaking down glucose and other organic compounds
Light energy

CO2 + H2O Organic + O ATP 2 Cellular respiration molecules in mitochondria

Photosynthesis in chloroplasts

ATP
ATP powers most cellular work Heat energy

Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Photosynthesis H2 O O
2

Cellular Respiration membranes grana

ADP ATP

O
2

H2 O

cristae

NADPH CO
2

NADP+ enzymes CH2 O CH2 O

NAD+

NADH CO
2

Cellular respiration

The Metabolic Pool Concept

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

carbohydrates
proteins

proteins
carbohydrates

fat
fats

amino acids

glucose

glycerol

fatty acids

Glycolysis

ATP

pyruvate

acetyl CoA

Citric acid cycle

ATP

Electron transport chain

ATP

C Squared Studios/Getty Images.

Comparison of the Main Pathways of cellular respiration

Aerobic respiration
metabolic pathways (using oxygen) are used by most eukaryotic cells

Fermentation
Anaerobic metabolic pathways (occur in the absence of oxygen)

used by prokaryotes and protists in anaerobic habitats

Comparison of the Main Pathways

Aerobic respiration and fermentation both begin with glycolysis, which converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate After glycolysis, the two pathways diverge Fermentation is completed in the cytoplasm, yielding 2 ATP per glucose molecule Aerobic respiration is completed in mitochondria, yielding 36 ATP per glucose molecule

GLYCOLYSIS

2 PYRUVATE

Fermentation

Aerobic respiration

Fig. 8-2b, p. 124

Overview of Aerobic Respiration

Three stages
Glycolysis Acetyl-CoA formation and Krebs cycle Electron transfer phosphorylation (ATP formation) C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2 (oxygen) CO2 (carbon dioxide) + H2O (water) Coenzymes NADH and FADH2 carry electrons and hydrogen

Overview of Aerobic Respiration

Fig. 8-3b, p. 125

8.1 Key Concepts:

Energy From Carbohydrate Breakdown

Various degradative pathways convert the chemical energy of glucose and other organic compounds to the chemical energy of ATP Aerobic respiration yields the most ATP from each glucose molecule; in eukaryotes, it is completed inside mitochondria

Glycolysis

Fig. 8-4a (2), p. 126

glucose

(glycolysis)
2 pyruvate

OUTER COMPARTMENT

6
2 acetyl-CoA 2 8 Krebs Cycle 2

CO2
ATP NADH FADH2

INNER COMPARTMENT
Breakdown of 2 pyruvate 6 CO2 yields 2 ATP. Also, 10 coenzymes (8 NAD+, 2 FAD) are reduced. The coenzymes carry hydrogen ions and electrons to the third stage of aerobic respiration.

Fig. 8-5b, p. 128

8.4 Aerobic Respirations Big Energy Payoff

Many ATP are formed during the third and final stage of aerobic respiration Electron transfer phosphorylation
Occurs in mitochondria Results in attachment of phosphate to ADP to form ATP

Third-stage reactions

Fig. 9-16

Electron Transport Chain

H+ H+

H+
H+ Protein complex of electron carriers Q Cyt c

V ATP synthase 2 H+ + 1/2O2 FAD ADP + P i H+ ATP H2O

FADH2 NADH (carrying electrons from food) NAD+

1 Electron transport chain

2 Chemiosmosis

Oxidative phosphorylation

Summary: The Energy Harvest

Typically, the breakdown of one glucose molecule yields 36 ATP

Glycolysis: 2 ATP Acetyl CoA formation and Krebs cycle: 2 ATP Electron transfer phosphorylation: 32 ATP

Summary: Aerobic Respiration

Fig. 9-6-3

Electrons carried via NADH

Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2

Glycolysis Glucose

Pyruvate

Citric acid cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis

Mitochondrion Cytosol

ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation

ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation

ATP Oxidative phosphorylation

8.3-8.4 Key Concepts:

How Aerobic Respiration Ends

The final stages of aerobic respiration break down pyruvate to CO2 Many coenzymes that become reduced deliver electrons and hydrogen ions to electron transfer chains; energy released by electrons flowing through the chains is captured in ATP Oxygen accepts electrons at ends of the chains

Anaerobic Energy-Releasing Pathways

Fermentation pathways break down carbohydrates without using oxygen The final steps in these pathways regenerate NAD+ but do not produce ATP

Two Pathways of Fermentation

Fermentation pathways

Alcoholic Fermentation

Fig. 9-18a

2 ADP + 2 P i

2 ATP

Glucose

Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate 2 NAD+ 2 NADH + 2 H+ 2 CO2

2 Ethanol (a) Alcohol fermentation

2 Acetaldehyde

Fig. 8-10c, p. 133

Fermentation in the twitchers

Slow-twitch muscle fibers (red muscles) make ATP by aerobic respiration
Have many mitochondria Dominate in prolonged activity

Fast-twitch muscle fibers (white muscles) make ATP by lactate fermentation

Have few mitochondria and no myoglobin Sustain short bursts of activity

Sprinters and Lactate Fermentation

Fig. 9-18b

2 ADP + 2 P i

2 ATP

Glucose

Glycolysis

2 NAD+

2 NADH + 2 H+ 2 Pyruvate

2 Lactate
(b) Lactic acid fermentation

Key Concepts:

How Anaerobic Pathways End

Fermentation pathways start with glycolysis

Substances other than oxygen accept electrons at the end of the pathways Compared with aerobic respiration, the net yield of ATP from fermentation is small

8.7 Alternative Energy Sources in the Body

Pathways that break down molecules other than carbohydrates also keep organisms alive

Alternative Energy Sources in the Human Body

Fig. 9-20 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats

Amino acids

Sugars

Glycerol

Fatty acids

Glycolysis Glucose

Glyceraldehyde-3- P

NH3

Pyruvate

Acetyl CoA

Citric acid cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation

8.7 Key Concepts:

Other Metabolic Pathways

Molecules other than glucose are common energy sources Different pathways convert lipids and proteins to substances that may enter glycolysis or the Krebs cycle

8.8 Reflections on Lifes Unity

Lifes diversity and continuity arise from unity at the level of molecules and energy
Energy inputs drive the organization of molecules into cells (one-way flow of energy)

Energy from the sun sustains lifes organization

Photosynthesizers use energy from the sun to feed themselves and other forms of life Aerobic respiration balances photosynthesis

Links Between Photosynthesis and Aerobic Respiration

Animation: Recreating the reactions of glycolysis

Video: When mitochondria spin their wheels

Animation: Where pathways start and finish

Animation: Overview of aerobic respiration

Animation: Glycolysis

Animation: The Krebs Cycle - details

Animation: Functional zones in mitochondria

Animation: Fermentation pathways

Animation: Alternative energy sources

Animation: Electron transfer phosphorylation

Animation: Krebs cycle overview

Animation: Electron transfer system and oxidative phosphorylation

Animation: Links with photosynthesis