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change, developmental psychologists look at ways in which people differ in their development Developmental psychologists often conceptualize the lifespan in terms of basic stages of development
age, which implies relatively sudden, age-related changes as we move from one stage to the next
Some aspects of development, such as prenatal development and language development, are closely tied to critical periods
DNA contains the chemical genetic code that directs the growth and development of many of your unique characteristics
Each gene is a unit of DNA instructions pertaining to
some characteristic,
such as eye or hair color, or handedness
Multiple gene pairs are involved in directing many complex features of development
displayed
Traits like freckles, dark eyes, dark hair, and dimples are referred to as dominant characteristics
Because they require only one member of a gene pair to be dominant for the trait to be displayed
environmental conditions
Prenatal Development
At conception, chromosomes from the biological mother and father combine to form a single cell the fertilized egg (zygote)
Prenatal stage made up of three distinct phases:
1. Germinal (first two weeks), 2. Embryonic (weeks 3-8), and 3. Fetal (week 9-birth) periods
Prenatal Development
Germinal (zygotic) period represents the first two weeks of prenatal development
The zygote undergoes rapid cell division
before becoming implanted on the mothers uterine wall By the end of the two-week germinal period, the single-celled zygote has developed into a cluster of cells called the embryo
The Zygote
First Division Second Division
Prenatal Development
The embryonic period from weeks 3 to 8
During this time of rapid growth and intensive cell
Prenatal Development
The Embryo
Teratogens
Cocaine and Heroin: Miscarriage, prematurity, birth defects Alcohol: Fetal alcohol syndrome, motor development problems Smoking: Reduces oxygen flow, increases CO2, increases odds of prematurity, low birthweight, and miscarriage
Prenatal Development
The third month is the beginning of the fetal period, the final and longest stage of prenatal development
By the end of the third month, the fetus can move its arms, legs,
mouth, and head During the fourth month, the mother experiences quickening she can feel the fetus moving By the fifth month, the fetus has distinct sleep-wake cycles and periods of activity During the sixth month, the fetuss brain activity becomes similar to that of a newborn baby During the final two months, the fetus will double in weight, gaining an additional three to four pounds
Fetal Development
In addition, the newborns senses vision, hearing, smell, and touch are keenly attuned to people,
helping the infant quickly learn to differentiate between the mother and other humans
weight
Body weight is only 5% of its adult weight
billion neurons
After birth, the brain continues to develop rapidly
The number of dendrites increases dramatically during the first two years of life The axons of many neurons acquire myelin: the white, fatty covering that increases a neurons communication speed
The basic sequence of motor skill development during infancy is universal, but average ages can be a little deceptive
Each infant has his or her own:
1. genetically programmed timetable of physical maturation and 2. developmental readiness to master different motor skills Like rolling over, sitting up, and standing
In the 1950s Chess & Thomas rated young infants on a variety of characteristics:
such as activity level, mood, regularity, and attention span
b.
c.
Easy babies readily adapt to new experiences, generally display positive moods and emotions, and have regular sleeping and eating patterns Difficult babies tend to be intensely emotional, are irritable and fussy, cry a lot, and tend to have irregular sleeping and eating patterns Slow-to-warm-up babies have a low activity level, withdraw from new situations and people, and adapt to new experiences very gradually
About 1/3 of the infants were characterized as average babies because they did not fit neatly into one of these three categories
Temperament
Characteristic ways of responding to the environment that vary from infant to infant
VIDEO Attachment
The Human Experience, segment 21
An insecurely attached infant is less likely to explore the environment, even when the mother is present and may appear either very anxious or completely indifferent
Such infants tend to ignore or avoid their mothers when they are present Some become extremely distressed when the mother leaves the room and, when reunited, they are hard to soothe and: may resist their mothers attempt to comfort them
By the time children reach three years of age, they have learned:
a. approximately 3,000 words and: b. the complex rules of their language
According to linguist Noam Chomsky, every child is born with a biological predisposition to learn language any language
That is, they possess what he calls a universal grammar:
a basic understanding of the common principles of language organization
People in every culture use a style of speech called motherese, or infant directed speech, with babies
Motherese is characterized by:
a. b. c. d. e. Distinct pronunciation, A simplified vocabulary, Short sentences, A high pitch, and Exaggerated intonation and expression
In virtually every culture, infants follow the same sequence of language development, and at roughly similar ages
1. Around 3 months infant begins to coo 1. Around 5 months infant begins to babble
Infants all over the world use the same sounds when they babble, including sounds that do not occur in the language of their parents and other caregivers
1. Around 9 months infant begins to babble more in the sounds specific to their language
Babbling seems to be a biologically programmed stage of language development
Around their first birthday, infants produce their first real words
Usually referring to concrete objects or people that are important to the child Such as mama, dada, or ba-ba (bottle) During the one-word stage, babies use a single word and vocal intonation to stand for an entire sentence
ba-ba = I want my bottle
words,
but basically follow a grammatically correct sequence
2 years of age
Language production and comprehension increase dramatically thereafter
Gender refers to the cultural and social meanings that are associated with maleness or femaleness
a. Gender roles behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that a given culture designates as either masculine or feminine b. Gender identity a persons psychological sense of being male or female
From about 18 months to the age of 2 years, sex differences in behavior begin to emerge
Toddler girls play more with soft toys and dolls,
and ask for help from adults more than toddler boys do
Social learning theory gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling Gender schema theory children actively develop mental categories/schemas (mental representations) for masculinity and femininity Gender schemas:
Influence how people pay attention to, perceive, interpret, and remember gender-relevant behavior Seem to lead children to perceive members of their own sex more favorably than members of the opposite sex Help children to readily assimilate new information
Piagets Stages
According to Piaget, children progress through four distinct cognitive stage
1.
2.
3. 4.
Piagets Stages
Sensorimotor
Understand the world through senses and motor actions Develop object permanence the idea that an object still exists even if it cant be seen CD ROM: Obj. Perm. (#15)
Piagets Stages
Preoperative (before logic)
Symbolic thought ability to use words, images, and symbols to represent the world Thinking is egocentric (the inability to take another persons perspective)
Piagets Stages
Concrete Operations
Can do logical operations
Understand reversibility
Can do conservation two equal quantities remain equal even if the appearance of one has changed
Piagets Stages
Formal Operations:
Can do abstract & hypothetical reasoning
I. II. III.
I.
Vygotskys View
Cognitive ability falls in the "Zone of Proximal Development"
Zone of Proximal Development Kids performance without help Kids performance with help
Adolescence
A transitional stage between late childhood and the beginning of adulthood, during which:
1. 2.
Adolescence
Some statistics:
1. 2.
Females are typically about two years ahead of males in terms of physical and sexual maturation The adolescent growth spurt the period of marked acceleration in weight and height gains
Occurs about two years earlier in females than in males
3.
4.
5.
Age is a good predictor of when teenagers typically begin various sexual behaviors
Adolescence
Social development
However:
Relationships with friends and peers become increasingly more important Peer relationships tend to reinforce the traits and goals that parents fostered during childhood
Adolescence
Identity formation: Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development
Age
0-1 1-3 3-6 6-Puberty Adolescence Young Adult Middle-Age Old Age
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair
Adolescence
The development of Moral Reasoning
The aspect of cognitive development that has to do with the way an individual reasons about moral decisions The most influential theory of moral reasoning was proposed by Kohlberg,
whose theory proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning: 1. Preconventional - avoiding punishment/maximizing gain 2. Conventional - social roles, rules, and obligations 3. Postconventional - internalized legal and moral principles Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards of society Each level has two stages that represent different degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning
Adolescence
1. The responses to children under 10 reflect preconventional moral reasoning
2. Beginning in late childhood and continuing through adolescence and adulthood, responses typically reflect conventional moral reasoning
Kohlbergs Theory
and individual is others "right"is "right "right Stage 2 -- Authorities & rulesthe 6 Universal principles 4 Whatever benefits determine what's determinesis "right" individual "right" "right"
% Moral Statements
Adolescence
Criticisms of Kohlbergs theory
1. Research was done on all males, but theory was
Adult Development
Physical changes
Our unique genetic blueprint greatly influences the unfolding of
certain physical changes during adulthood Such changes vary significantly from one person to another
For example, menopause (the cessation of menstruation that signals the end of reproductive capacity in women) may occur anywhere from the late thirties to the early fifties
can both slow and minimize the degree of physical decline associated with aging Physical strength typically peaks in early adulthood (the 20s and 30s) Strength and endurance gradually decline in middle adulthood (40s to mid 60s) Physical strength and stamina decline further and faster during late adulthood (mid 60s on)
Adult Development
Social development
In his theory of psychosocial development, Erikson described
Adult Development
The focus of adult friendships is somewhat different for men and women
Female friends tend to:
confide in one another about their feelings, problems, and interpersonal relationships
Adult Development
Establishing a committed relationship takes on a new urgency in adulthood:
getting married and starting a family are the traditional
Adult Development
The transition to parenthood
Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the birth of the first child
It tends to rise again after the children leave home
Adult Development
The nature of intimate relationships and family structures varies widely in the US
In the 1990s well over 3 million unmarried couples
were living together More than half of all first marriages end in divorce
Thus, remarrying and starting a second family is not unusual
overall sense of happiness and well-being for the people involved is a successful relationship
U.S. Households
Adult Development
Careers in adulthood
1.
Researchers have found that close to 1/3 of people in their late twenties and early thirties:
do not just change jobs within a particular field,
but completely switch occupational fields
2.
The majority of older adults live healthy, active, and self-sufficient lives
The number of older adults in the US has been gradually increasing over the past several decades
Living Arrangements
Living Arrangements
Denial of death Anger at the notion of dying Bargaining making a deal with doctors, relatives, or God Depression Acceptance
Further research indicates that individuals who are dying do not progress through a predictable sequence of stages
Dying is as individual a process as is living People cope with the prospect of dying much as they have coped with other stresses involved in living