Komunikasi Data dan Jaringan Komputer

Referensi
W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, 4ed, Macmillan, 1994. F. Halsall, Data Communications, Computer Networks and Open Systems, Addison Wesley, 1996.

A Communications Model
Source generates data to be transmitted Transmitter Converts data into transmittable signals Transmission System Carries data Receiver Converts received signal into data Destination Takes incoming data
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Simplified Communications Model - Diagram

Simplified Data Communications Model

Key Communications Tasks

Transmission System Utilization Interfacing Signal Generation Synchronization Exchange Management Error detection and correction Addressing and routing Recovery Message formatting Security Network Management
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Communications Standard
Many types of connection media : telephone lines, optical fibers, cables, radios, etc. Many different types of machines and operating systems Many different network applications

What Standard means?

How many volts pulse is a 0 and 1 ? How to determine the end of a message ? How to handle lost messages ? How many bits for different data types ? Integers/Strings, etc.; are ASCII chars ? How machines are identified ? How to find the way to reach a machine ? How applications speaks together through the network ?
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Standard Bodies
International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) International Standards Organization (ISO) Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) dll

The ISO/OSI Model

ISO (the International Standards Organization) has developed a reference model for communications, called the

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

OPEN SYSTEM means that it can communicate with any other system that follows the specified standards, formats and semantics.

OSI Networking Model

Program X
Application Presentation

Data
AH Data PH Data unit

Program Y
Application Presentation

Session
Transport Network Data link LH NH TH

SH Data unit
Data unit Data unit Data unit LT

Session
Transport Network Data link

Physical

Bits
Physical transmission medium

Physical

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OSI Layers (1)

Physical Physical interface between devices Mechanical Electrical Functional Procedural Data Link Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a reliable link Error detection and control Higher layers may assume error free transmission
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OSI Layers (2)

Network Transport of information Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology Not needed on direct links Transport Exchange of data between end systems Error free In sequence No losses No duplicates Quality of service

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OSI Layers (3)

Session Control of dialogues between applications Dialogue discipline Grouping Recovery Presentation Data formats and coding Data compression Encryption Application Means for applications to access OSI environment
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Transmission Medium
Guided - wire Unguided - wireless Characteristics and quality determined by medium and signal For guided, the medium is more important For unguided, the bandwidth produced by the antenna is more important Key concerns are data rate and distance
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Guided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Coaxial cable Optical fiber

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Twisted Pair
Twisted pair - INEXPENSIVE Two wires twisted together.
Makes them less susceptible to acting like an antenna and picking up radio frequency information or appliance noise.

Telephone company uses twisted-pair copper wires to link telephones.

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Twisted Pair

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Twisted Pair - Applications

Most common medium Telephone network

Between house and local exchange (subscriber loop) To private branch exchange (PBX) 10Mbps or 100Mbps
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Within buildings

For local area networks (LAN)

Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons

Cheap Easy to work with Low data rate Short range

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Twisted Pair - Transmission Characteristics

Analog Amplifiers every 5km to 6km Digital Use either analog or digital signals repeater every 2km or 3km Limited distance Limited bandwidth (1MHz) Limited data rate (100MHz) Susceptible to interference and noise

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Unshielded and Shielded TP

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ordinary telephone wire Cheapest Easiest to install Suffers from external EM interference Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference More expensive Harder to handle (thick, heavy)

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UTP Categories
Cat 3 up to 16MHz Voice grade found in most offices Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm Cat 4 up to 20 MHz Cat 5 or Cat 6 up to 100MHz Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm
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Coaxial Cable (1)

Coaxial cable Also two wires:
Use this when 1. Long distances 2. Lots of interference

One of the wires is woven of fine strands of copper forming a tube. The wire mesh surrounds a solid copper wire that runs down the center. Space between has a non-conducting material. Makes them more impervious to outside noise.
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Coaxial Cable (2)

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Coaxial Cable (3)

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Coaxial Cable Applications

Most versatile medium Television distribution

Aerial to TV Cable TV Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously Being replaced by fiber optic

Long distance telephone transmission

Short distance computer systems links Local area networks

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Coaxial Cable - Transmission Characteristics

Analog

Amplifiers every few km Closer if higher frequency Up to 500MHz

Repeater every 1km Closer for higher data rates

Digital

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Optical Fiber (1)

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Optical Fiber (2)

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Optical Fiber (3)

Fiber-optic cable (BIG JOBS + EXPENSIVE) Light is electromagnetic. Can transmit more information down a single strand. It can send a wider set of frequencies. Each cable can send several thousand phone conversations or computer communications.
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Optical Fiber - Spectrum

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Optical Fiber - Benefits

Greater capacity

Data rates of hundreds of Gbps

Smaller size & weight Lower attenuation Electromagnetic isolation Greater repeater spacing

10s of km at least

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Optical Fiber - Applications

Long-haul trunks Metropolitan trunks Rural exchange trunks Subscriber loops LANs

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Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics

Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz Portions of infrared and visible spectrum Light Emitting Diode (LED) Cheaper Wider operating temp range Last longer Injection Laser Diode (ILD) More efficient Greater data rate Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
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Optical Fiber Transmission Modes

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Wireless Transmission
Unguided media Transmission and reception via antenna Directional

Focused beam Careful alignment required

Omni-directional

Signal spreads in all directions Can be received by many antenna

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Frequencies
2GHz to 40GHz Microwave Highly directional Point to point Satellite 30MHz to 1GHz Omnidirectional Broadcast radio 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014 Infrared Local
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Terrestrial Microwave
Parabolic dish Focused beam Line of sight Long haul telecommunications Higher frequencies give higher data rates

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Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station Satellite receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and transmits on another frequency Requires geo-stationary orbit

Height of 35,784km

Television Long distance telephone Private business networks

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Broadcast Radio
Omni-directional FM radio UHF and VHF television Line of sight Suffers from multi-path interference

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Infrared
Modulate non-coherent infrared light Line of sight (or reflection) Blocked by walls e.g. TV remote control, IRD port

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Terminology (1)
Transmitter Receiver Medium

Guided medium
e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber

Unguided medium
e.g. air, water, vacuum

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Terminology (2)
Direct link

No intermediate devices
Direct link Only 2 devices share link

Point-to-point

Multi-point

More than two devices share the link

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Terminology (3)
Simplex

One direction
e.g. Television

Half duplex

Either direction, but only one way at a time

e.g. police radio

Full duplex

Both directions at the same time

e.g. telephone
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Terminology (4)
Bits per second (bps).

The number of bits (0s and 1s) that travel down the channel per second.
The number of bits that travel down the channel in a given interval. The number is given in signal changes per second, not necessarily bits per second.

Baud rate

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Terminology (5)
Asynchronous transmission

Information is sent byte by byte. Cheaper and more commonly used. Data is sent in large blocks rather than in small pieces. Preceded by special information, concerning error detection and block size. These modems are expensive but very fast.
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Synchronous transmission

Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Data

Entities that convey meaning

Electric or electromagnetic representations of data Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals
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Signals

Transmission

Data
Analog

Continuous values within some interval e.g. sound, video

Discrete values e.g. text, integers

Digital

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Data and Signals

Usually use digital signals for digital data and analog signals for analog data Can use analog signal to carry digital data

Modem Compact Disc audio

Can use digital signal to carry analog data

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Signals
Type of signal communicated (analog or digital). Analog: Those signals that vary with smooth continuous changes. A continuously changing signal similar to that found on the speaker wires of a high-fidelity stereo system. Digital: Those signals that vary in steps or jumps from value to value. They are usually in the form of pulses of electrical energy (represent 0s or 1s).

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Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to content May be analog or digital data Attenuated over distance Use amplifiers to boost signal Also amplifies noise

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Digital Transmission
Concerned with content Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc. Repeaters used Repeater receives signal Extracts bit pattern Retransmits Attenuation is overcome Noise is not amplified
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Advantages of Digital Transmission

Digital technology Low cost LSI/VLSI technology Data integrity Longer distances over lower quality lines Capacity utilization High bandwidth links economical High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques Security & Privacy Encryption Integration Can treat analog and digital data similarly
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Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal transmitted Analog - degradation of signal quality Digital - bit errors Caused by

Attenuation and attenuation distortion Propagation delay Noise Interference

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Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance Depends on medium Received signal strength:

must be enough to be detected must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error

Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency

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Propagation Delay
The time required for a signal to travel from one point to another. Propagation velocity varies with frequency.

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Noise (1)
Additional signals inserted between transmitter and receiver Thermal

Due to thermal agitation of electrons White noise

Inter-modulation

Signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies sharing a medium
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Noise (2)
Crosstalk

A signal from one line is picked up by another

Irregular pulses or spikes e.g. External electromagnetic interference Short duration High amplitude

Impulse

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Channel Capacity
Data rate

In bits per second Rate at which data can be communicated

In cycles per second of Hertz Constrained by transmitter and medium

Bandwidth

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Modulation Techniques

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Adaptive Modulation

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Data Rate and Bandwidth

Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies This limits the data rate that can be carried

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Multiplexing

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Time Division Multiplexing

Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital signal to be transmitted Multiple digital signals interleaved in time May be at bit level of blocks Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed Time slots allocated even if no data Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed amongst sources

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Time Division Multiplexing

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TDM System

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Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required bandwidth of channel Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not overlap (guard bands) e.g. broadcast radio Channel allocated even if no data

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Frequency Division Multiplexing Diagram

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FDM System

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