›




   




 introduction

Workability
criteria
Procedure
Detailed
Theory

Conclusion
remarks

€ Workability may be defined as the extent to
which a material can be formed without
failure.

€ Workability is not a unique material property

it is affected by both process and material
variables.

€ „
  

 
<local state of stress
<strain
<strain rate
<temperature
€ ² 

 

 
<Work piece geometry
<Punch and die
<Friction between work piece and tool system

¥    



are characterizes by the application of compressive
force to the material to impart a change in its shape
and dimensions
€ Ductile fracture is usually the limiting factor that
determines the workability of the cold bulk
forming processes.

€ Å 
 
is caused by instability which is a

result from very large plastic deformations
occurring in the surrounding of crystalline defects,
The surface of the ductile fracture is characterized
by the cup and cone.
€ Ductile fracture usually follows one of the two modes

S 
  
in which the stress normal to
surface is zero , this type is more common to
upsetting and rolling processes.
 
 

  
in which the fracture
occurs inside the work piece , this type is more
common to extrusion and forging processes


  
 
 

  

    !"# 
For a criterion to be successful in predicting
workability it should be capable of 
<Determining the amount of deformation before
fracture.
<Predicting the fracture initiation sites.

These tasks must be accomplished with least

sensitivity to calculation errors.
› !"# 
˜ Æere we introduce the most common used criteria
for the bulk forming processes , also the
improvements and modifications applied on these
criteria are discussed.

€ Workability criteria may be classified into two main

groups

Criteria based on
 
  considerations.

2
Criteria based on   considerations.
S

 
 
 
 



   
  
 
Õt is a micromechanical level approach relating fracture
to the nucleation, growth and coalescence of voids.

€ Õt usually follows a multistep failure process

(  nucleation of microscopic voids
(2 growth of voids induced by plastic straining
(3 localization of plastic flow between the enlarged
voids
(4 final tearing of the ligaments between enlarged
voids
Éteps of failure in ductile fracture
€  
criterion only assumes that the material
ruptures when the void volume fraction of the material
reaches a certain critical value
€ Õn the model, the material is assumed to fracture,
when the energy required to coalesce voids by internal
necking is less than the energy required to deform the
material homogeneously
€ Õn this model, the direction of the principal strain is
assumed to be unchanged during plastic deformation
€ {   has modified the Thomason model in which
the direction of the principal strain is assumed to
change during plastic deformation
€  
   

€  fracture criterion is proposed (by 9


 
 based on a three
dimensional unit cell,
with discontinuous velocity field.

€ They assumed that internal necking of the inter
void

matrix represents a sudden Dzdiscontinuous"
bifurcation from the previous homogeneous plastic
flow field, which results in a discontinuous velocity
field existing between segment • and •2.
€ When the equation ª•  ª•2= ªPL ªVEL is satisfied,
the material arrives at the critical state of incipient
internal necking.

€ ªPL is the rate of internal plastic dissipation energy

€ ªVEL is the rate of dissipation energy in velocity
discontinuous plane
€ The rates of internal plastic dissipation energy ª• and
ª•2 in segments • and •2

€ fter that the critical strain to fracture à is expressed

as the function of void volume fraction
¥ 
  

 



 

  
 macro mechanical approach states that fracture
occurs when a certain integral of a stress function
over the effective strain field reached a critical
value.
<
 

 
This criterion is based on true ductility and it is
suggesting that the fracture occurs when the
tensile strain energy reaches a critical value
<¥  
created a criterion which is a modified version of
Cockcroft and Latham and takes hydrostatic
pressure into account

<


proposed a criterion which differs slightly from
Cockcroft and Latham by using an equivalent
stress rather than the max tensile stress.
<M 
proposed a criterion which is derived from plasticity
theory for porous materials

<Æ  {
They took the Cockcroft & Latham criterion and
combined with the maximum shear stress criterion to
form their own criterion.
 
 
  





  

 
<{  
Éuggested that the axial and circumferential
strains at fracture provide a measure for
workability, this criterion is only applicable to free
surface fracture.

Étrain paths
for different
deformation
processes
Fracture locus for aluminum alloy 2024 at room temperature
¥





 

<Æ  
Mne of the first scientists who worked in this filed , he
used the tensile stress induced in the material in direction
normal to the axis of mechanical texturing

<É   


This criterion considers the ratio of mean stress and
effective stress and it gives the following fracture model
<É  
Éuggested that for a free surface ductile fracture a critical
value for shear stress is more reliable as a workability
criterion, results of their investigations demonstrated
that the fracture strains don't satisfy a linear fracture
line , investigations of the collar and punch test
enforced their claims .
$%&" & %'&"# 
"  (&)'  ((
some scientists tried to model workability limit by
ductile fracture & others used damage criteria.
Õn cold forging, location and time of ductile damage can
be determined by passive ultrasonic testing, in semi

hot forging an optical fracture measurement is chosen,

racture
propagation in
collar upsetting.
Crossover  is the range of temperature in which probability of damage
ranges from one to zero.

:        (left, Materials in semi
hot upsetting of

collar specimen with temperature crossover intervals (right
" %%( " 
((* &%+
S
  



Mbviously there exists no causality between the chemical composition

and the crossover temperature of the steels.
   

 

Élow cooling in an oven induced a comparably coarse
ferritic
pearlitic (FP microstructure with 55 % ferrite
and 45 % perlite Chilling of the specimen in oil
generated fine bainite with 30 % ferrite, 68 % bainite
and 2 % martensite.

Bainite and
ferritic

pearlitic grain
structure of
ÕÉÕ 
,
ductile pores
in the critical
area.
"  * ((( ,- !# Lemaitre:

The absolute damage value

denotes the ratio between
undamaged (
= 0 and fully damaged element (
= . The
evolution law of the absolute damage for the general case is
 is equivalent stress , dɉeq is incremental strain and E is
modulus of elasticity and ÉD is the damage resistance

Where is the ultimate tensile strength, Dc is the damage enough to

cause failure under multiaxial stress, D c is the damage enough to
cause failure under uniiaxial tension.
Drel= , Drel
(" (
Determination of material parameter (D c 
Damage parameters for some materials

Fracture propagation
in the tensile test
FE simulations with
the Model of Effective
Étresses.

&%( ' ' $%&"
("(,%( (-

Damage evolution
of the MEÉ in the
collar upsetting
test.
FE simulations of the MEÉ fracture propagation in the collar
upsetting test (ÕÉÕ  .

" ! .&  $"#
Triaxiality(ɋ can be calculated from the formula

Éo we can consider the triaxiality as an index for weather the

Loading is Tensile(ɋ is ve

Mr

Loading is Compressive(ɋ is Ȃve

From FEM we found that tension is more PRMVM TÕVE to
Damage than compression.
" %%"  ' &"  * ((((
 (" %(((+

Éemi
hot forged journal

bearing surface fissure at the
rim of the cup (ÕÉÕ 
.

Production of this
component took place on
four stages of backward
extrusion.
Damage occurred in the
fourth one.
FE
Éemi
hot forged
journal bearing
distribution of the
relative damage (MEÉ.

fter improvement of
the process by
annealing before fourth
stage we get the
following results.
„axi stresses i critical areas
˜Damage takes place in
regions of high
triaxiality(ɋ.

˜Õt takes place also in

transition zones betn.
compressive and tensile
regions in the w.p.
 "(
€ ›enerally, there is no particular workability criterion
can be applied for any metal forming process

€ The assessment of different fracture criteria is very

complicated and also there is a need to determine the
range of applicability best suitable for each one

€ From an industrial point of view, it is vital that the

number of material constants for a criterion is
minimized to reduce costs and time in material testing
for each constant
€ the Model of Effective Étresses by L was capable of
modeling the crossover temperature behavior with the collar
upsetting. The model was exemplarily applied to some
industrial cold and semi
hot forging processes.
€ The prediction capabilities as well as the optimization
approaches to the damaged processes showed the good
applicability.
€  deeper study of dependency between triaxiality, damage
occurrence and temperature behavior must be left to future
work.
€ Æendrik Just proposed that the Model of Effective Étresses by
L was chosen as the most reliable damage model for cold
and semi
hot forging.