Appendices 10.A & 10.

B:
An Educational Presentation
Presented By:
Joseph Ash
Jordan Baldwin
Justin Hirt
Andrea Lance
History of Heat Conduction
Jean Baptiste Biot
(1774-1862)
French Physicist
Worked on analysis of
heat conduction
Unsuccessful at dealing
with the problem of
incorporating external
convection effects in heat
conduction analysis

History of Heat Conduction
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier
(1768 1830)
Read Biots work
1807 determined how to solve the
problem
Fouriers Law
Time rate of heat flow (Q) through a
slab is proportional to the gradient of
temperature difference
History of Heat Conduction
Ernst Schmidt
German scientist
Pioneer in Engineering
Thermodynamics
Published paper Graphical Difference
Method for Unsteady Heat Conduction
First to measure velocity and
temperature field in free convection
boundary layer and large heat transfer
coefficients
Schmidt Number
Analogy between heat and mass
transfer that causes a dimensionless
quantity

Derivation of the Heat
Conduction Equation
A first approximation of the equations
that govern the conduction of heat in a
solid rod.
Consider the following:
A uniform rod is insulated on both lateral
ends.
Heat can now only flow in the axial direction.
It is proven that heat per unit time will pass
from the warmer section to the cooler one.
The amount of heat is proportional to the
area, A, and to the temperature difference
T
2
-T
1
, and is inversely proportional to the
separation distance, d.

The final consideration can be expressed as the
following:
is a proportionality factor called the thermal
conductivity and is determined by material properties
Assumptions
The bar has a length L so x=0 and x=L
Perfectly insulated
Temperature, u, depends only on position, x,
and time, t
Usually valid when the lateral dimensions are
small compared to the total length.
The differential equation governing
the temperature of the bar is a
physical balance between two rates:

Flux/Flow term
Absorption term
Flux
The instantaneous rate of heat transfer from left to
right across the cross sections x=x
0
where x
0
is
arbitrary can be defined as:
The negative is needed in order to show a positive
rate from left to right (hot to cold)
Flux
Similarly, the instantaneous rate of heat transfer
from right to left across the cross section x=x
0
+x
where x is small can be defined as:

Flux
The amount of heat entering the bar in a time span
of t is found by subtracting the previous two
equations and then multiplying the result by t:

Heat Absorption
The average change in temperature, u, can be
written in terms of the heat introduced, Q t and
the mass m of the element as:
where s = specific heat of the material
= density
Heat Absorption
The actual temperature change of the bar is simply
the actual change in temperature at some
intermediate point, so the above equation can also
be written as:
This is the heat absorption equation.
Heat Equation
Equating the Qt in the flux and absorption
terms, we find the heat absorption equation to
be:


If we divide the above equation by xt and allow
both x and t to both go to 0, we will obtain the
heat conduction or diffusion equation:


where
and has the dimensions of length^2/time and called
the thermal diffusivity
Boundary Conditions
Certain boundary conditions may apply to the
specific heat conduction problem, for
example:
If one end is maintained at some constant
temperature value, then the boundary condition
for that end is u = T.
If one end is perfectly insulated, then the
boundary condition stipulates u
x
= 0.
Generalized Boundary Conditions
Consider the end where x=0 and the rate of flow of
heat is proportional to the temperature at the end of
the bar.
Recall that the rate of flow will be given, from left to right, as

With this said, the rate of heat flow out of the bar from right to
left will be

Therefore, the boundary condition at x=0 is
where h
1
is a proportionality constant
if h
1
=0, then it corresponds to an insulated end
if h
1
goes to infinity, then the end is held at 0 temp.
Generalized Boundary Conditions
Similarly, if heat flow occurs at the end x = L, then the
boundary condition is as follows:


where, again, h
2
is a nonzero proportionality
factor
Initial Boundary Condition
Finally, the temperature distribution at one
fixed instant usually taken at t = 0, takes the
form:



occurring throughout the bar

Generalizations
Sometimes, the thermal conductivity, density,
specific heat, or area may change as the axial
position changes. The rate of heat transfer under
such conditions at x=x
0
is now:

The heat equation then becomes a partial
differential equation in the form:

or
Generalizations
Other ways for heat to enter or leave a bar must
also be taken into consideration.
Assume G(x,t,u) is a rate per unit per time.
Source
G(x,t,u) is added to the bar
G(x,t,u) is positive, non-zero, linear, and u does not depend on t
G(x,t,u) must be added to the left side of the heat equation
yielding the following differential equation


Generalizations
Similarly,
Sink
G(x,t,u) is subtracted from the bar
G(x,t,u) is positive, non-zero, linear, and u does not
depend on t
G(x,t,u) then under this sink condition takes the
form:

Generalizations
Putting the source and sink equations together
in the heat equation yields



which is commonly called the generalized
heat conduction equation
Multi-dimensional space
Now consider a bar in which the temperature is
a function of more than just the axial x-
direction. Then the heat conduction equation
can then be written:
2-D:


3-D:

Example 1: Section 10.6, Problem 9
Let an aluminum rod of length 20 cm be initially
at the uniform temperature 25C. Suppose that
at time t=0, the end x=0 is cooled to 0C while
the end x=20 is heated to 60C, and both are
thereafter maintained at those temperatures.
Find the temperature distribution in
the rod at any time t

Example 1: Section 10.6, Problem 9
Find the temperature distribution, u(x,t)

o
2
u
xx
=u
t
, 0<x<20, t<0
u(0,t)=0 u(20,t)=60, t<0
u(x,0)=25, 0<x<20

From the initial equation we find that:
L=20, T
1
=0, T
2
=60, f(x)=25

We look up the Thermal Diffusivity of aluminumo
2
=0.86
Example 1: Section 10.6, Problem 9
Using Equations 16 and 17 found on page 614, we
find that


where
( ) ( )

|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
1
1 1 2
sin ,
2
2 2 2
n
L
t n
n
L
x n
e c T
L
x
T T t x u
t
o t
( ) ( )
}
|
.
|

\
|
(

=
L
n
dx
L
x n
T
L
x
T T x f
L
c
0
1 1 2
sin
2 t
Example 1: Section 10.6, Problem 9
Evaluating c
n
, we find that
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
t
t
t
t t t t
t
n
n
c
n
n n n n
c
dx
x n x
c
n
n
L
n
50 cos 70
5 sin 12 cos 7 10
20
sin 0
20
0 60 25
20
2
2
0
+
=
(

+
=
|
.
|

\
|
(

=
}
Example 1: Section 10.6, Problem 9
Now we can solve for u(x,t)


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ + =
1
400
86 . 0
1
20
86 . 0
20
sin
50 cos 70
3 ,
20
sin
50 cos 70
0
20
0 60 ,
2
2
2 2 2
n
t n
n
t n
x n
e
n
n
x t x u
x n
e
n
n x
t x u
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
Example 1: Section 10.6, Problem 9
Derivation of the Wave Equation
Applicable for:

One space dimension, transverse vibrations on elastic string

Endpoints at x = 0 and x = L along the x-axis

Set in motion at t = 0 and then left undisturbed
Schematic of String in Tension
Equation Derivation
Since there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction


However the vertical components must satisfy


where is the coordinate to the center of mass and the
weight is neglected

Replacing T with V the and rearranging the equation becomes


0 cos ) , ( ) cos( ) , ( = A + A + u u u t x T t x x T
) , ( sin ) , ( ) sin( ) , ( t x xu t x T t x x T
tt
A = A + A + u u u
x
) , (
) , ( ) , (
t x u
x
t x V t x x V
tt
=
A
A +
Derivation continued
Letting , the equation becomes


To express this in terms of only terms of u we note that


The resulting equation in terms of u is


and since H(t) is not dependant on x the resulting equation is
0 Ax
) , ( ) , ( t x u t x V
tt x
=
) , ( ) ( tan ) ( ) , ( t x u t H t H t x V
x
= = u
tt x x
u Hu = ) (
tt xx
u Hu =
Derivation Continued
For small motions of the string, it is approximated that


using the substitution that


the wave equation takes its customary form of


T T H ~ = u cos
/
2
T a =
tt xx
u u a =
2
Wave Equation Generalizations
The telegraph equation

where c and k are nonnegative constants
cu
t
arises from a viscous damping force
ku arises from an elastic restoring force
F(x,t) arises from an external force

The differences between this telegraph equation and the customary
wave equation are due to the consideration of internal elastic
forces. This equation also governs flow of voltage or current in a
transmission line, where the coefficients are related to the electrical
parameters in the line.
) , (
2
t x F u a ku cu u
xx t tt
+ = + +
Wave Equations in Additional Dimensions
For a vibrating system with more than on significant space
coordinate it may be necessary to consider the wave equation in
more than one dimension.

For two dimensions the wave equation becomes


For three dimensions the wave equation becomes
tt yy xx
u u u a = + ) (
2
tt zz yy xx
u u u u a = + + ) (
2
Example 2: Section 10.7, Problem 6
Consider an elastic string of length L whose ends
are held fixed. The string is set in motion from
its equilibrium position with an initial velocity
g(x). Let L=10 and a=1. Find the string
displacement for any time t.

( )
( )

=
,
4
, 1
,
4
L
x L
L
x
x g
L x
L
L
x
L
L
x
s s
< <
s s
4
3
4
3
4
4
0
Example 2: Section 10.7, Problem 6
From equations 35 and 36 on page 631, we find
that


where
( )

=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
sin sin ,
n
n
L
at n
L
x n
k t x u
t t
( )
}
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
n
dx
L
x n
x g
L
k
L
a n
0
sin
2 t t
Example 2: Section 10.7, Problem 6
Solving for k
n
, we find:

( )
( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
(

|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
} } }
4
sin
4
3
sin
8
sin
4
sin
4
3
sin
4 2
sin
4
sin sin
4 2
3
2
4
0
4
3
4
4
3
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
t t t t
n n
n a
L
k
n
n n
n
L
a n
k
dx
L
x n
L
x L
dx
L
x n
dx
L
x n
L
x
L
k
L
a n
n
n
L L
L
L
L
n
Example 2: Section 10.7, Problem 6
Now we can solve for u(x,t)

( )
( )
( )
( )

=
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+
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=
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+
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=
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|
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\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
3 3
1
3 3
1
3
10
sin
10
sin
4
sin
4
3
sin
1 80
,
sin sin
4
sin
4
3
sin
1 8
,
sin sin
4
sin
4
3
sin
8
,
n
n
n
t n x n n n
n
t x u
L
at n
L
x n n n
n
L
t x u
L
at n
L
x n n n
n a
L
t x u
t t t t
t
t t t t
t
t t t t
t
THE END