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Lecture 1
Overview of the course; Theoretical foundations and early research: The importance of theory, history, and research methods
Required readings: de Saussure, F. (1972). Linguistic value. In C. Bally & A. Sechehaye (eds.), Course in general linguistics. Open Court La Salle, Illinois. pp. 111-120 Wang, W. S-Y. (1978). The Three Scales of Diachrony. In B. B. Kachru (ed.). Linguistics in the Seventies: Directions and Prospects. Department of Linguistics, University of Illinois. pp. 63-76. Dirven, R. & Verspoor, M. (1998). Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Chapter 1: The cognitive basis of language: language and thought. pp. 1-24 Recommended readings: Evans, V., & Green, M. (2005). Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. Chapter 1. pp. 1-33. Janda, L. (2000). Cognitive Linguistics. SLING2K Position Paper
Figure-ground is another Gestalt psychology principle. It was first introduced by the Danish phenomenologist Edgar Rubin (1886-1951). The classic example:
It is only by the descriptions and explanations at these three levels that one can achieve a full understanding of the mind.
Thus, according to cognitive linguists, we have no access to a reality independent of human categorisation, and that is why the structure of reality as reflected in language is a product of the human mind.
Semantic structure reflects the mental categories which people have formed from their experience and understanding of the world.
Methodological Principles
Human categorisation is one of the major issues in Linguistics. The ability to categorise, i.e., to judge that a particular thing is or is not an instance of a particular category, is an essential part of cognition. Categorisation is often automatic and unconscious, except in problematic cases.
This can cause us to make mistakes and make us think that our categories are categories of things, when in fact they are categories of abstract entities.
When experience is used to guide the interpretation of a new experience, the ability to categorise becomes indispensable. How human beings establish different categories of elements has been discussed ever since Aristotle.
The Cognitive Basis of Language: Language and Thought (Dirven, R. & Verspoor, M. 1998).
Some fundamental aspects of language and linguistics Semiotics - the systematic study of signs which analyzes verbal and non-verbal systems of human communication as well as animal communication. Semiotics distinguishes between three types of signs: indices icons symbols They represent three different structural principles relating form and content. Linguistic categories not only enable us to communicate, but also impose a certain way of understanding the world.
What is a sign?
In its widest sense, a sign may be defined as a form which stands for something else, which we understand as its meaning. Different types of signs in sign systems
raising our eyebrows -> indexical drawing the outline of a woman by using our hands -> iconic expressing our thoughts by speaking -> symbolic
An indexical sign/index
An indexical sign/index (meaning pointing finger in Latin) - points to something in its immediate vicinity e.g.
a signpost for traffic pointing in the direction of the next town facial expressions raising ones eyebrows or furrowing ones brows point to a persons internal emotional states of surprise or anger.
An iconic sign/icon
An iconic sign/icon, (from Greek eikon replica) provides a visual, auditory or any other perceptual image of the thing it stands for. is similar to the thing it represents. e.g. Temporary Conditions
Warning Signs
These images are only vaguely similar to reality but their general meanings are very clear. The gestural drawing of something (e.g., a womans shape with ones hands) with ones finger is an iconic sign.
A symbolic sign/symbol
does not have a natural link between the form and the thing represented, only has a conventional link. e.g. the traffic sign of an inverted triangle:
does not have a natural link between its form and its meaning give right of way. the link between its form and meaning is purely conventional.
military emblem
flag
Most of language has no natural link at all between the word form and its meaning.
Iconic signs
more complex
their understanding requires the recognition of similarity. The iconic link of similarity needs to be consciously established by the observer.
Symbolic signs
The exclusive prerogative of humans. Humans have more communicative needs than pointing to things and replicating things Humans want to talk about things which are more abstract in nature The most elaborate system of symbolic signs is natural language in all its forms
A spoken language as the most universal form a written form of language develops due to civilization and intellectual development a sign language largely based on conventionalized links between gestures and meanings.
The three types of signs are illustrated in Table 1 and reflect general principles of coping with forms and meanings.
The EGO serves as the deictic centre for locating things in space. The EGO serves as the deictic centre for locating things with respect to other things as well. e.g.
the bicycle and tree example deictic orientation changes the car and bicycle examples inherent orientation stays constant
Personal pronouns for males and females as opposed to it Special interrogative and relative pronouns referring to humans as opposed to things A special possessive form for human (the mans coat but not * the houses roof)
Refers to the conventional pairing of form and meaning as is typically found in the word stock of a language. The link between the form and the meaning of symbolic signs was called arbitrary (Saussure 1916) However, the whole range of new words or new senses of existing words are motivated.
Lexical categories Lexical categories are defined by their specific content, while grammatical categories provide the structural framework for the lexical material. The conceptual content of a lexical category tends to cover a wide range of instances. The best member, the prototypical member, the most prominent member of a category, is the subtype that first comes to mind when we think of that category. Alongside prototypical members of a category and less prototypical ones, we also hve more peripheral or marginal members.
Grammatical categories The structural framework provided by grammatical categories include abstract distinctions which are made by means of word classes, number, tense, etc. Most of the words classes were first introduced and defined by Greek and Roman grammarians as partes orationis parts of speech. The meanings traditionally associated with word classes only apply to prototypical members. Prototypical nouns denote time-stable phenomena, while verbs, adjectives and adverbs denote more temporary phenomena.