Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

Haipan Salam
Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
TABLE 7.1 General characteristics of sheet-metal forming proceses.
Process Characterist i cs
Roll Formi ng Long parts wi t h cons t ant complex cross-sections; good surface fi nish; high
production rates ;high tool i ng costs.
Stretch formi ng Large part swith shal l ow contours; sui t able f or l ow-quant i t y product i on; high
labor costs; tool i ng and equipment costs depend on part si ze.
Drawing Shal l ow or deep parts wi t h relat i vely si mple shapes; high product i on rates;
high t ool i ng and equ i pment cost s.
Stamping Includes a var i ety of operat i ons, such as punching, blank i ng, emboss i ng,
bending, f l anging, and coining; s i mple or compl ex shapes formed at h i gh
production rates ;tool i ng and equipment costs c an be high, but labor cost is
low.
Rubber formi ng Drawing and emboss i ng of s i mp l e or complex shapes; sheet surface
protected by rubber membranes; fl exibi l i ty o f operat i on; low tool i ng costs.
Spinning Sma l l or large axi symmetri cparts ;good surf ace fini sh; low tool i ng costs, but
labor costs c an be high unless operat i ons are automated.
Superplast i c
formi ng
Comp l ex shapes, fi ne detail and c l ose t olerances; formi ng t imes are long,
hence production rates are low; parts not sui t able f or high-temperature use.
Peen formi ng Shal l ow contours on large sheets; f l exi bil i t y of operat i on; equipment cos t s
can be high; process i sal so used for straightening parts.
Explos i ve formi ng Very large sheets with r elati vely complex shapes, al t hough usual l y
ax i symmetri c; l ow tool i ng costs, but high labor costs ; s uitable for low-
quanti t y production; long cycle t i mes.
Magneti c-pul se
formi ng
Shal l ow f ormi ng, bulging, and embossing operat i ons on relati vely l ow-
strength sheets; most sui t able f or tubular shapes; high production rates;
requires spec i al tool i ng.
Localized Necking in Sheet Metal
FIGURE 7.1 (a) Localized
necking in a sheet
specimen under tension.
(b) Determination of the
angle of neck from the
Mohrs circle for strain.
(c) Schematic illustration
for diffuse and localized
necking. (d) Localized
necking in an aluminum
strip stretched in
tension. Note the double
neck.
Yield Point Elongation
FIGURE 7.2 (a) Yield point elongation and Lueders bands in tension testing. (b) Lueders
bands in annealed low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for
household products. Source: (b) Reprinted with permission from Caterpillar, Inc.
Stress-Corrosion Cracking
FIGURE 7.3 Stress-corrosion
cracking in a deep-drawn brass
part for a light-fixture. The cracks
developed over a period of time.
Brass and austenitic (300 series)
stainless steels are among metals
that are susceptible to stress-
corrosion cracking.
Shearing
FIGURE 7.4 Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a
punch and die. This process with a punch and die. This process is a
common method of producing various openings in sheet metals.
Characteristi
cs of Hole
and Slug
FIGURE 7.5
Characteristic features of
(a) a punched hole and
(b) the punched slug.
Note that the slug has
been sealed down as
compared with the hole.
Shearing
FIGURE 7.6 (a) Effect of clearance c between the punch and die on the deformation zone in
shearing. As clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die, rather than being
sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b)
Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm-thick (0.25-in.-thick) AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the
sheared region. Source: After H. P. Weaver and K. J. Weinmann.
FIGURE 7.7 Typical punch-penetration curve in
shearing. The area under the curve is the work done in
shearing. The shape of the curve depends on process
parameters and material properties.
Punching, Blanking and Shearing
Operations
FIGURE 7.8 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b)
Examples of various shearing operations on sheet metal.
Fine Blanking
FIGURE 7.9 (a) Comparison of sheared edges by conventional (left)
and fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of the
setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool U.S. Operations.
Sitting and Shaving Operations
FIGURE 7.10 Sitting with rotary
knives. This process is similar to
opening cans.
FIGURE 7.11 Schematic illustrations of
shaving on a sheared edge. (a) Shaving a
sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving,
combined in one stroke.
Shear Angles For Punches and Dies
FIGURE 7.12 Examples of the use of shear
angles on punches and dies.
Progressive Dies
FIGURE 7.13 (a) Schematic illustration of the making of a washer in a progressive die. (b)
Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is
attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.
Tailor-Welded
Blanks
FIGURE 7.14 (a) Production
of an outer side panel of a
car body by laser welding
and stamping. (b) Examples
of laser welded and stamped
automotive body
components. Source: After
M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
Bending
FIGURE 7.15 (a) Bending terminology. The bend radius is measured to the inner surface of the
bend. Note that the length of the bend is the width of the sheet. Also note that the bend angle and
the bend radius (sharpness of the bend) are two different variables. (b) Relationship between the
ratio of bend radius to sheet thickness and tensile reduction of area for various materials. Note that
sheet metal with a reduction of area of about 50% can be bent and flattened over itself without
crackling. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T. Yang.
Minimum Bend Radii
TABLE 7.2 Minimum bend radii for various
materials at room temperature.
MATERIAL MATERIAL CONDITION
SOFT HARD
Aluminum alloys
Beryllium copper
Brass, low-leaded
Magnesium
Steels
austenitic stainless
low-carbon, low-alloy, and HSLA
Titanium
Titanium alloys
0
0
0
5T

0.5T
0.5T
0.7T
2.6T
6T
4T
2T
13T

6T
4T
3T
4T

Length of Bend
And Edge
Condition/Ratio
of Bend Radius
FIGURE 7.16 The effect of length of bend and edge condition on the ratio of
bend radius to thickness of 7075-T aluminum. Source: After G. Sachs and G.
Espey.
The Effect of Elongated Inclusions
FIGURE 7.17 (a) and (b) The
effect of elongated inclusions
(stringers) on cracking as a
function of the direction of
bending with respect to the
original rolling direction of the
sheet. This example shows the
importance of the direction of
cutting from large sheets in
workpieces that are
subsequently bent to make a
product. (c) Cracks on the outer
radius of an aluminum strip
bent to an angle of 90.
Springback in Bending
FIGURE 7.18 Terminology for springback
in bending. Springback is caused by the
elastic recovery of the material upon
unloading. In this example, the material
tends to recover toward its originally flat
shape. However, there are situations
where the material bends farther upon
unloading (negative springback), as shown
in Fig. 7.20.
FIGURE 7.19 Springback factor K, for various
materials: (a) 2024-0 and 7075-0 aluminum; (b)
austenitic stainless steels; (c) 2024-T aluminum; (d)
1/4- hard austenitic stainless steels; (e) 1/2-hard to
full-hard austenitic stainless steels. Source: After G.
Sachs.
Negative Springback
FIGURE 7.20 Schematic illustration of the stages in bending round wire in a V-die. This type
of bending can lead to negative springback, which does not occur in air bending (shown in
Fig. 7.26a). Source: After K. S. Turke and S. Kalpakjian.
Methods of Reducing or Eliminating
Springback
FIGURE 7.21 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in
bending operations. Source: V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.
Common Die-Bending Operations
FIGURE 7.22 Common die-bending operations, showing the die-opening
dimension W used in calculating bending forces. [See Eq,(7.11).]
Bending Operations In a Press Brake
FIGURE 7.23 Schematic illustration of various
bending operations in a press brake.
Various Bending Operations
FIGURE 7.24 Examples of various bending
operations.
Bead Forming
FIGURE 7.25 (a) Bead forming with a single
die. (b) Bead forming with two dies in a press
brake.
Flanging Operations
FIGURE 7.26 Various
flanging operations. (a)
Flanges on flat sheet. (b)
Dimpling. (c) Piercing sheet
metal to form a flange. in
this operation, a hole does
not have to be prepunched
before the punch descends.
Note, however, the rough
edges along the
circumference of the flange.
(d) Flanging of a tube. Note
the thinning of the edges of
the flange.
Roll-Forming Process
FIGURE 7.27 The
roll-forming process.
FIGURE 7.28 Stages in roll forming of a
sheet-metal door frame. In Stage 6, the rolls
may be shaped as in A or B. Source: G. Oehler.
Bending of Tubes
FIGURE 7.29 Methods of bending tubes. Using internal mandrels, or filling tubes with particulate
materials such as sand, is often necessary to prevent collapsing of the tubes during bending. Solid rods
and structural shapes are also bent by these techniques.
Tube Forming
FIGURE 7.30 A method of forming a tube with sharp angles, using axial compressive forces.
Compressive stresses are beneficial in forming operations because they delay fracture. Note
that the tube is supported internally with rubber or fluid to avoid collapsing during forming.
Source: After J. L. Remmerswaal and A. Verkaik.
Stretch-Forming Process
FIGURE 7.31 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum
skins for aircraft can be made by this process. Source: Cyril Bath Co.
Bulging Of A Tubular Part
FIGURE 7.32 (a) Bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for
plumbing by expanding tubular blanks with internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched out to produce a T. Source: J. A.
Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 2d. ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1987. Reproduced by permission of
the McGraw-Hill Companies. (c) Manufacturing of Bellows.
Forming with a Flexible Pad
FIGURE 7.33 Examples of bending and embossing sheet metal with a metal
punch and a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane
Products Corporation.
Hydroform Process
FIGURE 7.34 The hydroform, or fluid-forming, process. Note that, unlike in the ordinary
deep-drawing process, the dome pressure forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup
travels with the punch, and thus deep drawability is improved.
Tube-Hydroforming Process
FIGURE 7.35 (a) Schematic illustration of the tube-hydroforming process. (b) Example of
tube-hydroformed parts. Automotive exhaust and structural components, bicycle frames, and
hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are produced through tube hydroforming. Source: Schuler
GmBH.
Spinning Processes
FIGURE 7.36 Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a) conventional spinning and (b)
shear spinning. Note that in shear spinning, the diameter of the spun part, unlike in
conventional spinning, is the same as that of the blank. The quantity f is the feed (in mm/rev
or in./rev).
Shapes in Spinning Processes
FIGURE 7.37 Typical shapes produced by the conventional-spinning process. Circular marks
on the external surfaces of components usually indicate that the parts have been made by
spinning. Examples include aluminum kitchen utensils and light reflectors.
Spinnability
FIGURE 7.38 Schematic illustration
of a shear-spinnability test. As the
roller advances, the part thickness is
reduced. The reduction in thickness
at fracture is called the maximum
spinning reduction per pass. Source:
After R. L. Kegg.
FIGURE 7.39 Experimental data showing the
relationship between maximum spinning reduction
per pass and the tensile reduction of area of the
original material. Note that once a material has
about 50% reduction of area in a tension test, any
further increase in the ductility of the original
material does not improve the materials
spinnability. Source: S. Kalpakjian.
Internal And External Tube Spinning
FIGURE 7.40 Examples of external and internal tube
spinning and the variables involved.
Tube And Shear Spinning of Compressor Shaft
FIGURE 7.41 Stages in tube
and shear spinning of a
compressor shaft for the jet
engine of a supersonic
Concorde aircraft. Economic
analysis indicated that the
best method of
manufacturing this part was
to spin a preformed (forged
and machined) tubular blank.
Explosive Forming Process
FIGURE 7.42 Schematic illustration of the
explosive-forming process. Although explosives
are generally used for destructive purposes,
their energy can be controlled and employed in
forming large parts that would otherwise be
difficult or expensive to produce by other
methods.
FIGURE 7.43 Influence of the standoff
distance and type of energy-transmitting
medium on the peak pressure obtained
using 1.8 kg (4 lb) of TNT. To be
effective, the pressure-transmitting
medium should have high density and
low compressibility. In practice, water is
a commonly used medium.
Explosive Tube Bulging and
Electrohydraulic Forming
FIGURE 7.44 Schematic illustration of the confined method
of explosive bulging of tubes. Thin-walled tubes of
nonferrous metals can be formed to close tolerances by this
process.
FIGURE 7.45 Schematic
illustration of the
electrohydraulic-forming
process.
Magnetic-Pulse-Forming Process
FIGURE 7.46 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse-forming
process. The part is formed without physical contact without physical contact
with any object
Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic
Forming
FIGURE 7.47 Two
types of structures
made by diffusion
bonding and
superplastic forming
of sheet metal. Such
structures have a
high stiffness-to-
weight ratio. Source:
Rock-well
International Corp.
Peen-Forming
FIGURE 7.48 Peen-forming machine to form a large sheet-metal part,
such as an aircraft-skin panel. The sheet is stationary, and the
machine traverses it. Source: Metal Improvement Company.
Methods of Making Honeycomb
Materials
FIGURE 7.49 Methods of making honeycomb materials: (a) expansion
process and (b) corrugation process. Source: Materials Engineering. Reprinted
with permission. (c) Making a honeycomb sandwich.
Introduction
Basic Principles of Drawing
Drawing is a sheet metal forming operation used
to make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other
complex-curved, hollow-shaped parts. It is
performed by placing a piece of sheet metal over
a die cavity and then pushing the sheet into the
opening with a punch. The blank is held down
flat against the die by a blankholder.
46
A blank of diameter D
b
is drawn into the die by means of a punch
of diameter D
p
. The punch and die have corner radii R
p
and R
d
,
respectively. The sides of the die and punch are separated by a
clearance, c, which is about 10% greater than the sheet
thickness. The punch applies a downward force, F, to deform the
metal while the downward holding force, F
h
, is applied by the
blankholder.
47
Mechanics of Drawing
Mechanics of Drawing
As the punch proceeds towards its
final position, the workpiece
experiences a complex sequence of
stresses and strains as it is formed
into its final shape.

In step 1, the blankholder force, F
h
,
is applied and the punch begins to
move towards the sheet material.

In step 2, the sheet material is
subjected to a bending operation.
The sheet is bent over the corner of
the punch and the corner of the die.

In step 2, as the punch continues
moving down, a straightening action
occurs in the metal that was
previously bent over the die radius.
48
Mechanics of Drawing
In step 3, as the punch continues
moving down, a straightening action
occurs in the metal that was previously
bent over the die radius. Metal from
the outside edge of the blank is drawn
into the die opening to form the
cylinder wall.

In step 4, friction between the sheet
material and surfaces of the
blankholder and die must be overcome
in order for the material to be drawn.
Compression is also occurring at the
outer edge of the blank. As the metal is
being drawn in toward the center, the
outer perimeter becomes smaller. The
volume of metal remains constant,
however, and thus the metal is
squeezed and becomes thicker in the
flange area. 49
Mechanics of Drawing
The downward motion of the
punch results in a continuation
of the metal flow caused by
drawing and compression. Some
thinning at the cylinder walls
occurs as well. Step 5 shows the
completed drawing process.
50
Mechanics of Drawing
The next slide illustrates the deep drawing process. However, in
this situation the punch (gray in color) is stationary and the blank
being deformed is not shown.

The animation clearly shows how the top die (blue) lowers
towards the binder plate (red). The sheet rests on the plate and
once the top die makes contact with the sheet, a cup is formed
around the stationary punch. The cushion pins (green rods)
transmit the blankholder force acting on the binder plate to the
hydraulic piston (cushion) which is located below the press table.
51
Mechanics of Drawing
Click figure for animation
52
Binder plate
Upper Die
Punch
Cushion Pins
Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The drawing ratio, DR, gives an indication of the severity of the
drawing operation: the higher the ratio, the greater the severity.
The drawing ratio is defined as:



Where, D
b
= blank diameter and D
p
= punch diameter. This value
is dependant upon punch and die corner radii, friction
conditions, draw depth, and material properties of the sheet
metal.
53
p
b
D
D
DR =
Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The drawing force required to perform a drawing operation can
be roughly estimated by the following formula:




Where
F = Drawing force
t = Original blank thickness
TS = Tensile strength
D
b
= Blank diameter
D
p
= Punch diameter
54
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 7 . 0
p
b
p
D
D
TS t D F t
Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The blankholder force required for a drawing operation to
prevent defects is approximated by the following formula:




Where
F
h
= Blankholder force
Y = Yield strength
D
b
= Blank diameter
D
p
= Punch diameter
R
d
= Die corner radius
55
( ) { }
2
2
2 2 . 2 015 . 0
d p b h
R t D D Y F + + = t
Defects in Drawing
A number of defects in drawing can occur, which include:

(a) Wrinkling in the flange occurs due to compressive buckling because of a small blank
holder force.
(b) Wrinkling in the wall takes place when a wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup.
(c) Tearing occurs because of high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the
metal in the cup wall. Tearing can also occur in a drawing process if the die has a sharp
corner radius.
(d) Earring occurs when the material is anisotropic, i.e. has varying properties in different
directions.
(e) Surface scratches can be seen on the drawn part if the punch and die are not smooth or
if the lubrication of the process is poor.

56
Objectives
This lab has the following objectives:
Become familiarized with the basic processes
used in sheet metal forming.
Analyze a cup drawing operation and attempt
to select the best process parameters.
57
Sheet Metal Forming Cup Drawing
Test Materials and Equipment
Robinson (Open Back Inclinable- OBI) press
Model A3
25-ton capacity
Safety Equipment and Instructions
Wear safety glasses.
Conduct the test as directed by the instructor.
Do not use hands to put or remove specimens on
the die use the supplied tongs.
Turn off the OBI press whenever you need to adjust
its setting.
58
Sheet Metal Forming Cup Drawing
Procedure:
Obtain specimens to be
tested and record the
material data onto your
data sheet.
Choose one sample and
place it in the tooling
using the tongs.
For the first specimen, set
the air pressure for the
blankholder cylinders to
approximately 30 psi.
Step on the foot pedal to
cycle the press one time.
59
Sheet Metal Forming Cup Drawing
Procedure (continued):
If the part does not fall out of the bottom on its own, remove it
using the tongs or power down the press and blankholder before
attempting to remove the part. Be sure the flywheel has
completely stopped before attempting to retrieve the part!
Inspect the formed part and record any observed defects. If the
part is not ideal, decide what process parameters you might adjust
to improve the part quality. You may adjust the blankholder force
or use a lubricant.
Select another specimen of the same material and try your new
process parameters. Again, record any defects and speculate
appropriate adjustments to the process parameters.
Adjust the parameters again and form your third specimen. Inspect
the material and record any observed defects.
Repeat steps 4-9 for the remaining materials.
60
Sheet Metal Forming Cup Drawing Video
The cup drawing video on the next slide shows
the following:
Inserting and centering the sheet material into
the die
Powering up the machine
Adjusting and initializing the blank holder
force/pressure
Operating the press to create the deep-drawn
cup
61
Deep-drawing Process
FIGURE 7.50 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process. This procedure is the first step in the basic process by which aluminum
beverage cans are produced today. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Variables in deep drawing
of a cylindrical cup. Only the punch force in this illustration is a dependent variable; all others are independent variables, including the
blankholder force.
Deformation in Flange and
Wall in Deep Drawing
FIGURE 7.51 Deformation of elements in (a)
the flange and (b) the cup wall in deep
drawing of a cylindrical cup.
Drawing Operations
FIGURE 7.52 Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The
bead prevents the sheet metal from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of
wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in drawing. Source: After W. F. Hosford and R.
M. Caddell.
Draw Bead
FIGURE 7.53 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during drawing of a
box-shaped part, using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of
circular grids in drawing. (See Section 7.13.) Source: After S. Keeler.
Ironing Process
FIGURE 7.54 Schematic illustration of the ironing process. Note
that the cup wall is thinner than its bottom. All beverage cans
without seams (known as two-piece cans) are ironed, generally in
three steps, after being deep drawn into a cup. (Cans with separate
tops and bottoms are known as three-piece cans.)
FIGURE 7.55 Definition of the normal anisotropy
ratio, R, in terms of width and thickness strains in a
tensile-test specimen cut from a rolled sheet. Note
that the specimen can be cut in different directions
with respect to the length, or rolling direction, of
the sheet.
Normal Anisotropy
Average Normal Anisotropy
TABLE 7.3 Typical range of the average normal
anisotropy ratio, R, for various sheet metals.
Z i nc al l oys
Hot-rol l ed steel
Cold-roll ed r i mmed steel
Cold-roll ed alumi num-ki l l ed stee l
A l uminum all oys
Copper and brass
T i tanium all oys (o)
Stai nless steels
High-strength l ow-alloy steels
0.4-0.6
0.8-1.0
1.0-1.4
1.4-1.8
0.6-0.8
0.6-0.9
3.0-5.0
0.9-1.2
0.9-1.2
Anisotropy
FIGURE 7.56 Effect of grain size on
the average normal anisotropy for
various low-carbon steels. Source:
After D. J. Blickwede.
FIGURE 7.57 Relationship between the
average normal anisotropy, R, and the average
modulus of elasticity, E, for steel sheet. Source:
After P. R. Mould and T. R. Johnson, Jr.
Effect of Average Normal Anisotropy
FIGURE 7.58 Effect of average normal
anisotropy, R, on limiting drawing ratio
(LDR) for a variety of sheet metals. Zinc has
a high c/a ratio (see Figure 3.2c), whereas
titanium has a low ratio. Source: After M.
Arkinson.
FIGURE 7.59 Earing in a drawn steel cup,
caused by the planar anisotropy of the sheet
metal.
Deep Drawing
FIGURE 7.60 Schematic illustration of the
variation of punch force with stroke in deep
drawing. Note that ironing does not begin until
after the punch has traveled a certain distance
and the cup is formed partially. Arrows indicate
the beginning or ironing.
FIGURE 7.61 Effect of die and punch
corner radii in deep drawing on
fracture of a cylindrical cup. (a) Die
corner radius too small. The die corner
radius should generally be 5 to 10
times the sheet thickness. (b) Punch
corner radius too small. Because
friction between the cup and the punch
aids in the drawing operation,
excessive lubrication of the punch is
detrimental to drawability.
Redrawing Operations
FIGURE 7.62
Reducing the
diameter of drawn
cups by redrawing
operations: (a)
conventional
redrawing and (b)
reverse redrawing.
Small-diameter deep
containers undergo
many drawing and
redrawing
operations.
Tractrix Die Profile
FIGURE 7.63 Deep drawing without a blankholder, using a tractrix die
profile. The tractrix is a special curve, the construction for which can
be found in texts on analytical geometry or in handbooks.
Punch-Stretch Test
FIGURE 7.64 (a) Schematic illustration of the punch-stretch test on sheet specimens with
different widths, clamped at the edges. The narrower the specimen, the more uniaxial is the
stretching. (b) A large square specimen stretches biaxially under the hemispherical punch.
(See also Fig. 7.65.)
Bulge Test Results
FIGURE 7.65 Bulge tests results on steel sheets of various widths. The first specimen
(farthest left) stretched farther before cracking than the last specimen. From left to right, the
state of stress changes from uniaxial to biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of R. W.
Thompson, Inland Steel Research Laboratories.
Forming-Limit
Diagram
FIGURE 7.66 (a) Forming-limit diagram (FLD) for various sheet metals. The major strain is always positive. The region above the curves is the failure
zone; hence, the state of strain in forming must be such that it falls below the curve for a particular material; R is the normal anisotropy. (b) Note
the definition of positive and negative minor strains. If the area of the deformed circle is larger than the area of the original circle, the sheet is
thinner than the original, because the volume remains constant during plastic deformation. Source: After S. S. Hecker and A. K. Ghosh.
Strains In Sheet-Metal Forming
FIGURE 7.67 An example of the use of grid marks (circular and square) to determine the
magnitude and direction of surface strains in sheet-metal forming. Note that the crack (tear)
is generally perpendicular to the major (positive) strain. Source: After S. P. Keeler.
Major and Minor Strains In a Vehicle
FIGURE 7.68 Major
and minor strains in
various regions of an
automobile body.
Efficient Nesting of Blanks
FIGURE 7.69 Efficient nesting of parts for optimum material
utilization in blanking. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Tearing and Buckling Control
FIGURE 7.70 Control of tearing and buckling of a flange in a
right-angle bend. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Notches Used To Avoid Wrinkling
FIGURE 7.71 Application of notches to avoid tearing and wrinkling in right-
angle bending operations. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Stress Concentrations Near Bends
FIGURE 7.72 Stress concentrations near bends. (a) Use of a crescent
or ear for a hole near a bend. (b) Reduction of the severity of a tab in
a flange. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Scoring For Sharper Inner Radius
Bending
FIGURE 7.73 Application of scoring of embossing to obtain a sharp
inner radius in bending. Unless properly designed, these features can
lead to fracture. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Cost Comparison
FIGURE 7.74 Cost comparison for manufacturing a round sheet-metal
container by conventional spinning and deep drawing. Note that for
small quantities, spinning is more economical.
Top of Aluminum Can
FIGURE 7.75 The top of an aluminum
beverage container.
Metal-Forming
Process for Food
and Beverage
Containers
FIGURE 7.76 The metal-forming process
used to manufacture two-piece beverage
cans.
Aluminum Two-Piece Beverage Cans
FIGURE 7.77 Aluminum two-piece beverage cans. Note the fine
surface finish. Source: Courtesy of J. E. Wang, Texas A&M Univerity.