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INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS
UNIT-IV
PMOS
MOSFET IN SATURATION
MOSFET SATURATION
CONDITION
Large Drain Resistance R
D

DIODE
THE IDEAL DIODE
Terminal characteristics
The forward bias region:-
I = I
s
(e
v/nv
T
-1) V
T
=KT/q K = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38x10-23 joules/kelvin
T = the absolute temp in Kelvins 273 + temp in degree centigrade
Q = magnitude of electric charge = 1.60 x 10-19.
The Full wave Rectifier:-
PIV = 2V
s
- V
D

Bridge Rectifier:-
Determination of PIV:-
v
D3
(reverse) = v
o
+ v
D2
(forward)
PIV (diode3) =V
s
-2V
D
+V
D

The rectifier with a filter capacitor:-
Assume diode is ideal
I
L
= v
o
/R
I
D
= i
C
+i
L
= cdv
i
/dt +i
L

Bipolar junction Transistor
Device Structure and Physical Operation
NPN
PNP
BJT Mode of operation
OPERATION OF THE NPN TRANSISTOR IN ACTIVE MODE
N
p
(o) = n
po
e
v
BE
/v
T

Electron concentration =N
p
(0),
Where n
p0
is the thermal equilibrium value of the minority carrier concentration(electron) in
base region
V
BE
is the forward base emitter bias voltage.
V
T
is thermal voltage = 25mv. At room temperature.
Circuit symbols:-
Current directions:
The common Emitter Amplifier(CE):-
Terminal characteristics of CE Amplifier:-

Input Resistance, Voltage gain, Output Resistance
Common base amplifier:
A Unijunction transistor is a three terminal
semiconductor switching device. this device has a
unique characteristics that when it is triggered , the
emitter current increases regeneratively until is
limited by emitter power supply the unijunction
transistor can be employed in a variety of
applications switching pulse generator saw tooth
generator etc

UJT

Construction
It consists of an N type silicon bar with an electrical
connection on each end the leads to these
connection are called base leads. Base 1 B1 Base 2
B2 the bar between the two bases nearer to B2
than B1. A pn junction is formed between a p type
emitter and Bar.the lead to the junction is called
emitter lead E.


Operation
The device has normally B2 positive w.r.t B1
If voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1 with
emitter open. Voltage gradient is established along the
n type bar since emitter is located nearer to B2 more
than half of VBB appears between the emitter and B1.
the voltage V1 between emitter and B1 establishes a
reverse bias on the pn junction and the emitter current
is cut off. A small leakage current flows from B2 to
emitter due to minority carriers
If a positive voltage is applied at the emitter the pn
junction will remain reverse biased so long as the
input voltage is less than V1 if the input voltage to the
emitter exceeds V1 the pn junction becomes forward
biased.under these conditions holes are injected from
the p type material into the n type bar these holes are
repelled by positive B2 terminal and they are attracted
towards B1 terminal of the bar. This accumulation of
holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the degrees
of resistance in this section of the bar the internal
voltage drop from emitter to b1 is decreased hence
emitter current Ie increases as more holes are injected
a condition of saturation will eventually be reached at
this point a emitter current limited by emitter power
supply only . the devices is in on state.
If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter , the pn
junction is reverse biased and the emitter current is cut
off. The device is said to be off state.

Characteristics of UJT

The curve between Emitter voltage Ve and
emitter current Ie of a UJT at a given voltage Vbb
between the bases this is known as emitter
characteristic of UJT
Initially in the cut off region as Ve increases from
zero ,slight leakage current flows from terminal
B2 to the emitter the current is due to the
minority carriers in the reverse biased diode
Above a certain value of Ve forward Ie begins to flow
, increasing until the peak voltage Vp and current Ip
are rreached at point P.

After the peak point P an attempt to increase Ve is
followed by a sudden increases in emitter current Ie
with decrease in Ve is a neagative resistance portion
of the curve
The negative portion of the curve lasts until the
valley point V is reached with valley point voltage
Vv.and valley point current Iv after the valley point
the device is driven to saturation the difference Vp-
Vv is a measure of a switching efficiency of UJT fall
of Vbb decreases


Advantages of UJT
It is a Low cost device
It has excellent characteristics
It is a low-power absorbing device under
normal operating conditions


Digital to Analog
Converters (DAC)
109
Outline
Purpose
Types
Performance Characteristics
Applications
110
Purpose
To convert digital values to analog voltages
Performs inverse operation of the Analog-to-Digital
Converter (ADC)



DAC
Digital Value Analog Voltage
Reference Voltage
Value Digital
OUT
V
111
DACs
Types
Binary Weighted Resistor
R-2R Ladder
Characteristics
Comprised of switches, op-amps, and resistors
Provides resistance inversely proportion to significance of
bit

112
Binary Weighted Resistor
R
f
= R
8R 4R 2R R
V
o

-V
REF

i
I
LSB
MSB
113
Binary Representation
R
f
= R
8R 4R 2R R
V
o

-V
REF

i
I
Least
Significant Bit
Most
Significant Bit
114
Binary Representation
-V
REF

Least
Significant Bit
Most
Significant Bit
CLEARED SET
( 1 1 1 1 )
2
= ( 15 )
10
115
R-2R Ladder
V
REF
MSB
LSB
Common Applications
117
Generic use
Circuit Components
Digital Audio
Function Generators/Oscilloscopes
Motor Controllers



Digital to Analog Converters
-Common Applications
The phototransistor
A phototransistor is an ordinary transistor that has been
modified in two ways:
(1) there is a transparent window so that light can shine on
the junctions and
(2) the structure has been modified to maximize the light
capture area. Some phototransistors have an
external base lead; others do not. If there is an external
base lead, it is often left floating or connected to a high
impedance bias source to bias the collector current to a
specific value for the no light condition.
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
An LDR is a component that has a resistance that changes
with the light intensity that falls upon it. They have a
resistance that falls with an increase in the light intensity
falling upon the device.
The resistance of an LDR may typically have the following
resistances
Daylight = 5000
Dark = 20000000

Liquid crystal display

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display,
electronic visual display or video display that uses
the light modulating properties of liquid
crystals(LCs) .LCs do not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications,
including computer monitors, TV, aircraft, They are
common in consumer devices such as video players,
gaming devices,etc.
Plasma Display Panel
A plasma display is comprised of two parallel sheets
of glass, which enclose a gas mixture usually
composed of neon and xenon (some manufacturers
also use helium in the mix) that is contained in
millions of tiny cells sandwiched in between the
glass.
Electricity, sent through an array of electrodes that
are in close proximity to the cells, excites the gas,
resulting in a discharge of ultraviolet light.
The light then strikes a phosphor coating on the
inside of the glass, which causes the emission of
red, blue or green visible light. (Each cell, or pixel,
actually consists of one red, one blue and one green
sub-pixel).
The three colors in each pixel combine according to
the amount of electric pulses fed to each sub-pixel,
(which varies according to the signals sent to the
electrodes by the plasma displays internal
electronics), to create visible images.

Optocoupler
In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator,
optocoupler, photocoupler, or photoMOS) is a
device that uses a short optical transmission path to
transfer a signal between elements of a circuit,
typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping
them electrically isolated since the signal goes
from an electrical signal to an optical signal back to
an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path
is broken.

A common implementation involves a LED and a
phototransistor, separated so that light may travel
across a barrier but electrical current may not.
When an electrical signal is applied to the input of
the opto-isolator, its LED lights, its light sensor then
activates, and a corresponding electrical signal is
generated at the output. Unlike a transformer, the
opto-isolator allows for DC coupling and generally
provides significant protection from serious
overvoltage conditions in one circuit affecting the
other.
opt interrupter
The optointerrupter is an electronic device that
consists of a light emitting diode (LED) and a
phototransistor with a slot between them.
When voltage is applied to the LED it emits light like
an electric bulb. However, the LED used in an
optointerrupter emits an infrared light beam which
is invisible. Light emitting diodes are very reliable
and consume a relatively small current. Big current
may destroy them, therefore a resistor must be
added to limit the current.
Phototransistors are specially designed transistors
with the base region exposed. These transistors are
light sensitive, especially when infrared source of
light is used. They have only two leads (collector
and emitter). When there is no light the
phototransistor is closed and does not allow a
collector-emitter current to go through. The
phototransistor opens only with the presence of
sufficient light.
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
Attributes: high speed and internal gain
Good for communications
A thin side layer is exposed through a window to achieve
illumination.
3 p type layers follow this and terminate at the electrode.
These p-type layers have different doping levels in order to modify the
field distribution across the diode.
1
st
p-type region is a thin layer
2
nd
p-type region is a thick, lightly dope layer. (almost intrinsic)
3
rd
p-type region is heavily doped layer.
+
n
t
+
p
APD
The diode operates in the reverse bias mode in order to
increase the field in the depletion regions.
Applying an adequate R.B. will force the depletion region in
the p-layer to reach-through to layer.
The field ultimately extends from -side depletion layer to
the - side depletion layer.
Absorption of photons and therefore photogeneration takes
place in the long layer.
It is a uniform field in the layer due to the small net space
charge density.
t
+
n
+
p
t
APD
The E-field is at a maximum at the - side and a minimum at
the - side.
Drifting electrons arriving at the p-layer experience elevated
fields and acquire enough kinetic energy (greater than Eg) to
impact-ionize some of the Si covalent bonds and release
EHPs.
These EHPs can be accelerated by high fields to high kinetic
energies to cause further impact ionization releasing even
more EHPs leading to an avalanche of impact-ionization
process.
+
n
+
p
+
p
p
+
SiO
2 Electrode

net
x
x
E(x)
R
E
hu > E
g
p
I
ph
e

h
+
Absorption
region
Avalanche
region
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a) A schematic illustration of the structure of an avalanche photodiode (APD) biased
for avalanche gain. (b) The net space charge density across the photodiode. (c) The
field across the diode and the identification of absorption and multiplication regions.
Electrode
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
n
+
Power supply

A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or
more electric loads.
The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form
of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that
convert another form of energy (e.g., mechanical, chemical, solar) to
electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the
output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is
held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the
voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as
well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an
energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain
energy from:
Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this
include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.
Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
Solar power.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device
or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load. In the latter case,
for example, low voltage DC power supplies are commonly integrated
with their loads in devices such as computers and household
electronics.

Switched-mode power supply
In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is
directly rectified and then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The
resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off at a high frequency
by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that
will pass through a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching
occurs at a very high frequency (typically 10 kHz 1 MHz), thereby
enabling the use of transformers and filter capacitors that are much
smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in linear power
supplies operating at mains frequency. After the inductor or
transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and filtered
to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately
insulated high-frequency transformer, the output will be electrically
isolated from the mains; this feature is often essential for safety.
Types of Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert
high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for
electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken
down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function.
Transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with
little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of
the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase
voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies
use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains
voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the
secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils,
instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the
soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the
circuit symbol represent the core.

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is
stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a
large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to
the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
turns ratio = VP/VS = NP/NS
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is
also available in special packages containing the four diodes required.
It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both
positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier
because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always
two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge
rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the
maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least
three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the
peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details, including
pictures of bridge rectifiers.
Smoothing
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor
connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying
current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is
falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line)
and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near
the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current
to the output.
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to
almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC
is rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the
bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak
value giving 1.4 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.
Zener diode regulator
For low current power supplies a simple voltage regulator can be
made with a resistor and a zener diode connected in reverse as
shown in the diagram. Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown
voltage Vz and maximum power Pz (typically 400mW or 1.3W).
The resistor limits the current (like an LED resistor). The current
through the resistor is constant, so when there is no output current
all the current flows through the zener diode and its power rating Pz
must be large enough to withstand this.
UNIT-V
BASIC DIGITAL CONCEPTS
NC and CNC machines and Control Programming
Introduction to NC and CNC machines

CNC controls and RS274 programming
History of CNC
1949
US Air Force asks MIT to develop a "numerically
controlled" machine.
1952
Prototype NC machine demonstrated (punched tape input)
1980-
CNC machines (computer used to link directly to controller)
1990-
DNC: external computer drip feeds control
programmer to machine tool controller
Advantages of CNC
- Easier to program;
- Easy storage of existing programs;
- Easy to change a program
- Avoids human errors
- NC machines are safer to operate
- Complex geometry is produced as cheaply as simple
ones
- Usually generates closer tolerances than manual
machines
Conventional milling machines
Vertical milling machine
Vertical Milling machine architecture
Conventional milling machines
Horizontal Milling machine architecture
Conventional milling machines
How does the table move along X- Y- and Z- axes ?
NC machines
Motion control is done by: servo-controlled motors
~
Servo Controller
Counter Comparator
Encoder
A/C Motor
Input (converted from analog to digital value)
Table
Leadscrew
CNC terminology
BLU: basic length unit
smallest programmable move of each axis.
Controller: (Machine Control Unit, MCU)
Electronic and computerized interface between operator and m/c
Controller components:
1. Data Processing Unit (DPU)
2. Control-Loops Unit (CLU)
Controller components
Data Processing Unit:
Input device [RS-232 port/ Tape Reader/ Punched Tape Reader]
Data Reading Circuits and Parity Checking Circuits
Decoders to distribute data to the axes controllers.
Control Loops Unit:
Interpolator to supply machine-motion commands between data points
Position control loop hardware for each axis of motion
Types of CNC machines
Based on Motion Type:
Point-to-Point or Continuous path

Based on Control Loops:
Open loop or Closed loop

Based on Power Supply:
Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic

Based on Positioning System
Incremental or Absolute
Open Loop vs. Closed Loop controls
Open loop control of a Point-to-Point NC drilling machine
NOTE: this machine uses stepper motor control
Components of Servo-motor controlled CNC
Motor speed control
Two types of encoder configurations
Motor lead screw rotation table moves
position sensed by encoder feedback
Motion Control and feedback
Encoder outputs: electrical pulses (e.g. 500 pulses per revolution)
Rotation of the motor linear motion of the table: by the leadscrew
The pitch of the leadscrew: horizontal distance between successive threads
One thread in a screw single start screw: Dist moved in 1 rev = pitch
Two threads in screw double start screw: Dist moved in 1 rev = 2* pitch
173
The z-Transform
174
z-Transform
The z-transform is the most general concept for the
transformation of discrete-time series.
The Laplace transform is the more general concept for the
transformation of continuous time processes.
For example, the Laplace transform allows you to transform
a differential equation, and its corresponding initial and
boundary value problems, into a space in which the equation
can be solved by ordinary algebra.
The switching of spaces to transform calculus problems into
algebraic operations on transforms is called operational
calculus. The Laplace and z transforms are the most
important methods for this purpose.
175
The Transforms
The Laplace transform of a function f(t):
}

=
0
) ( ) ( dt e t f s F
st
The one-sided z-transform of a function x(n):

=
0
) ( ) (
n
n
z n x z X
The two-sided z-transform of a function x(n):

=
n
n
z n x z X ) ( ) (
176
Relationship to Fourier Transform
Note that expressing the complex variable z in polar form
reveals the relationship to the Fourier transform:

=
= =
= =
=
n
n i i
n
n i n i
n
n
i i
e n x X e X
r if and e r n x re X
or re n x re X
e e
e e
e e
e ) ( ) ( ) (
, 1 , ) ( ) (
, ) )( ( ) (
which is the Fourier transform of x(n).
177
Region of Convergence
The z-transform of x(n) can be viewed as the Fourier transform of x(n)
multiplied by an exponential sequence r
-n
, and the z-transform may
converge even when the Fourier transform does not.
By redefining convergence, it is possible that the Fourier transform
may converge when the z-transform does not.
For the Fourier transform to converge, the sequence must have finite
energy, or:
<

n
n
r n x ) (
178
Convergence, continued

=
n
n
z n x z X ) ( ) (
The power series for the z-transform is called a Laurent series:
The Laurent series, and therefore the z-transform, represents an
analytic function at every point inside the region of convergence, and
therefore the z-transform and all its derivatives must be continuous
functions of z inside the region of convergence.
In general, the Laurent series will converge in an annular region of the
z-plane.
179
Some Special Functions
First we introduce the Dirac delta function (or unit sample
function):

=
=
=
0 , 1
0 , 0
) (
n
n
n o
This allows an arbitrary sequence x(n) or continuous-time function
f(t) to be expressed as:
}

=
=
=
dt t x x f t f
k n k x n x
k
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
o
o
or

=
=
=
0 , 1
0 , 0
) (
t
t
t o
180
Convolution, Unit Step
These are referred to as discrete-time or continuous-time
convolution, and are denoted by:
) (
*
) ( ) (
) (
*
) ( ) (
t t f t f
n n x n x
o
o
=
=
We also introduce the unit step function:

<
>
=

<
>
=
0 , 0
0 , 1
) ( or
0 , 0
0 , 1
) (
t
t
t u
n
n
n u
Note also:

=
=
k
k n u ) ( ) ( o
181
Poles and Zeros
When X(z) is a rational function, i.e., a ration of polynomials in z, then:
1. The roots of the numerator polynomial are referred to as the zeros
of X(z), and
2. The roots of the denominator polynomial are referred to as the
poles of X(z).
Note that no poles of X(z) can occur within the region of convergence
since the z-transform does not converge at a pole.
Furthermore, the region of convergence is bounded by poles.
182
Example
) ( ) ( n u a n x
n
=
The z-transform is given by:


=

= =
0
1
) ( ) ( ) (
n
n
n
n n
az z n u a z X
Which converges to:
a z for
a z
z
az
z X >

=
1
1
1
) (
Clearly, X(z) has a zero at z = 0 and a pole at z = a.

a
Region of convergence
183
Convergence of Finite Sequences
Suppose that only a finite number of sequence values are
nonzero, so that:

=
2
1
) ( ) (
n
n n
n
z n x z X
Where n
1
and n
2
are finite integers. Convergence requires
. ) (
2 1
n n n for n x s s <
So that finite-length sequences have a region of convergence
that is at least 0 < |z| < , and may include either z = 0 or z = .
184
Inverse z-Transform
The inverse z-transform can be derived by using Cauchys
integral theorem. Start with the z-transform

=
n
n
z n x z X ) ( ) (
Multiply both sides by z
k-1
and integrate with a contour integral
for which the contour of integration encloses the origin and lies
entirely within the region of convergence of X(z):
transform. - z inverse the is ) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
) (
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
1
1
1 1
n x dz z z X
i
dz z
i
n x
dz z n x
i
dz z z X
i
C
k
n
C
k n
C
n
k n
C
k
=
=
=
}

}
}

}

=
+

=
+
t
t
t t
185
Properties
z-transforms are linear:

The transform of a shifted sequence:

Multiplication:

But multiplication will affect the region of
convergence and all the pole-zero locations
will be scaled by a factor of a.
| | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( z bY z aX n by n ax + = + Z
| | ) ( ) (
0
0
z X z n n x
n
= + Z
| | ) ( ) (
1
z a Z n x a
n
= Z
186
Convolution of Sequences
both. of e convergenc of regions the inside of values for ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
let
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
Then
) ( ) ( ) (
z z Y z X z W
z z m y k x z W
k n m
z k n y k x
z k n y k x z W
k n y k x n w
k
k m
m
n
k n
n
n k
k
=
(
(

=
=
=
(
(

=
=

187
More Definitions
Definition. Periodic. A sequence x(n) is periodic with
period if and only if x(n) = x(n + ) for all n.

Definition. Shift invariant or time-invariant. Consider a
sequence y(n) as the result of a transformation T of x(n).
Another interpretation is that T is a system that responds
to an input or stimulus x(n):
y(n) = T[x(n)].
The transformation T is said to be shift-invariant or time-
invariant if:
y(n) = T [x(n)] implies that y(n - k) = T [x(n k)]
For all k. Shift invariant is the same thing as time
invariant when n is time (t).
188
| |

=
= =
=
=
(
(

=
=

k
k
k
k k
k
n h n x k n h k x n y
T
n h k x n y
k n T k x k n k x T n y
k n
k n n h
). (
*
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
then , transform the of invariance time have we If
). ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
: Then . at occurring
shock or spike" " a ), ( to system the of response the be ) ( Let
o o
o
This implies that the system can be completely characterized by its
impulse response h(n). This obviously hinges on the stationarity of
the series.
189
Definition. Stable System. A system is stable if
<

= k
k h ) (
Which means that a bounded input will not yield an
unbounded output.

Definition. Causal System. A causal system is one in
which changes in output do not precede changes in input.
In other words,
| | | | . for ) ( ) ( then
for ) ( ) ( If
0 2 1
0 2 1
n n n x T n x T
n n n x n x
< =
s =
Linear, shift-invariant systems are causal iff h(n) = 0 for n < 0.
190
. ) ( ) (
that so ) ( ) ( Let
) ( ) ( ) (
Then . for ) ( let
is, That . sinusoidal be ) ( let ) ( ) ( ) ( Given
) (
n i i
k
k i i
k
k i n i
k
k n i
n i
k
k
e e H n y
e k h e H
e k h e e k h n y
n e n x
n x n h k x n y
e e
e e
e e e
e
=
=
= =
< < =
=

=
Here H(e
ie
) is called the frequency response of the system
whose impulse response is h(n). Note that H(e
ie
) is the Fourier
transform of h(n).
191
We can generalize this state that:
. of function continuous a to uniformly converges
and convergent absolutely is transform the then , ) (
) (
2
1
) (
) ( ) (
e
e
t
t
t
e e
e e
<
=
=

n
n i i
n
n i i
n x If
d e e X n x
e n x e X
This implies that the frequency response of a stable system always
converges, and the Fourier transform exists.
These are the Fourier
transform pair.
192
If x(n) is constructed from some continuous function x
C
(t) by
sampling at regular periods T (called the sampling period),
then x(n) = x
C
(nT) and 1/T is called the sampling frequency or
sampling rate.
If e
0
is the highest radial frequency of sinusoids comprising
x(nT), then
t
t
e
2
1
or
2
0
0
w
T T
> <
Is the sampling rate required to guarantee that x
C
(nT) can be
used to fully recover x
C
(t), This sampling rate e
0
is called the
Nyquist rate (or frequency). Sampling at less than this rate will
involve losing information from the time series.
Assume that the sampling rate is at least the Nyquist rate.
193
e
t
e
t
e e
t
t
e
t
e
e
t
t
e
e e
e e
t
t
e
t
t
e
d e e kT x
T
t x
e kT x e X
d e e TX t x
d e i X t x
T T
i X
T
e X
t i
T
T
k
Tk i
c c
k
Tk i
c
T i
t i T i
T
T
c
t i
T
T
c c
c
T i
}

}
}

(
(

=
=
=
=
s s

=
) (
2
) (
have we , ) ( ) ( Since
. ) (
2
1
) (
: Combining
. ) (
2
1
) (
: transform Fourier time continuous the From
), (
1
) (
194
( )( )
( )( )
.
) sin
) ( ) (
: integral the Evaluating
2
) ( ) (
n, integratio and summation of order the Changing
) (

=
(
(

=
k
c c
k
T
T
kT t i
c c
kT t
T
kT t
T
kt x t x
d e
T
kT x t x
t
t
e
t
t
t
e
NOTE: This equation allows for recovering the
continuous time series from its samples. This is valid
only for bandlimited functions.
195
Bilinear transformation with pre-warping
Example

The bilinear transform (also known as Tustin's method) is used in digital signal
processing and discrete-time control theory to transform continuous-time system
representations to discrete-time and vice versa.
Bilinear Transformation with Pre-
Warping
Standard bilinear transformation
1
2
1
2
sT
z
sT
+
=

2 1
1
z
s
T z

=
+
je-axis Unit circle
Look at detail of mapping

Discrete (digital)
frequency

Frequency mapping

A
s je =
D
j T
z e
e
=
s-plane
z-plane
Stable
Stable
-j
-1
1
j

Analog frequency
D
j T
e
e
A
je
Bilinear
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
198
2 1
1
D
D
j T
A
j T
e
j
T
e
e
e
e

=
+
2
2
T
D
T
D
j
j
e
e
e
e

2 2
2 2
2
T T
D D
T T
D D
j j
j j
e e
T
e e
e e
e e

=
+
2 sin
2
2
2cos
2
D
D
T
j
T
T
e
e
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
|
\ .
2 sin
2
D
T
j
e
| |
|
\ .
2cos
2
D
T e
| |
|
\ .
2
tan
2
D
A
T
T
e
e
| |
=
|
\ .
Bilinear transformation
produces frequency
distortion (warping)
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
199
Frequency mapping
2
tan
2
D
A
T
T
e
e
| |
=
|
\ .
Note
( )
( )
D
j T
c A db
K j K e
e
e =
Exact
But at different frequencies
Match at a critical frequency
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
200
Critical frequency
0
s je =
Define
0
0
tan
2
2
T
s s
T
e
e
| |
|
\ .
=
Then apply bilinear transformation to s
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
201
Note:
2 1
1
z
s
T z

=
+
0
0
tan
2
2 2 1
1
T
z
s
T T z
e
e
| |
|

\ .
=
+
0
0
1
1
tan
2
z
s
z
T
e
e

=
+
| |
|
\ .
Bilinear
transformation
with pre-warping
0
0
j T
s j z e
e
e = =
( )
( )
0
0
j T
c db
K j K e
e
e =
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
202
Example
System
( )
( )
1
0.1 s
1
G s T
s s
= =
+
Objectives
40% 0.115 s ( 1 sample)
p r
M t = = ~
Analysis
Peak overshoot
Rise time
0.28 28 17 45
M
, | = = + =
1.8
15.6
0.115
n
e = =
( ) ( )
4 2
18 1 4 0.45 2 0.45 12.8 rad/s
g
e = + =
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
203
Continuous-time design
12.8 rad/s 45
g M
e | = =
( )
( )
1 1
12.8
90 tan 12.8 tan
20
des g
G je

| |
=
|
\ .
208.15 =
add 75 phase lead at 12.8 rad/s
Design system
( ) ( ) ( )
des ZOH
G s G s G s =
( )( )
1
1 0.05 1 s s s
=
+ +
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
204
Use symmetric optimum design
1 sin75
1 sin75
o

=
+
0.0173 =
1
g
T
e o
=
1
12.8 0.0173
= 0.593 =
0.0102 T o =
( )
0.593 1
0.0102 1
c cp
s
K s k
s
+
=
+
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
205
Gain to achieve crossover
( ) ( )
1
des g c g
G j K j e e =
( )
( ) ( )
0.0102 12.8 1
12.8 0.593 12.8 1
cp
des
j
k
G j j
+
=
+
25.7 =
( )
0.593 1
25.7
0.0102 1
c
s
K s
s
+
=
+
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
206
Continuous-time design
Bilinear transformation with pre-warping

0
12.8 rad/s
g
e e = =
0
0
1
1
tan
2
z
s
z
T
e
e

=
+
| |
|
\ .
( )
12.8 1
1
tan .64
z
z

=
+
1
17.2
1
z
s
z

=
+
1
20
1
z
s
z

=
+
Bilinear:
( )
0.593 1
25.7
0.0102 1
c
s
K s
s
+
=
+
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
207
Continuous-time design
Bilinear controller
Matlab commands
Kdb =
c2d(Kc,T,tustin)
( )
0.844
274.2
0.659
db
z
K z
z

=
+
Bilinear controller with pre-warp at 12.8
rad/s
Kdm =
c2d(Kc,T,prewarp,e
0
)
( )
0.822
244.5
0.700
dbp
z
K z
z

=
+
( )
0.593 1
25.7
0.0102 1
c
s
K s
s
+
=
+
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
208
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
a
b
s
)
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
0
10
1
0
30
60
90
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)


Continuous-time
Bilinear
Bilinear with Prewarp
Controllers
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
209
10
-1
10
0
10
1
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
a
b
s
)
10
0
10
1
-180
-150
-120
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)


Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
Continuous-time
Bilinear
Bilinear with Prewarp
Loop TFs
May 14, 2007
Feedback Control Systems (II) Douglas
Looze
210
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Continuous-time
Bilinear
Bilinear with Prewarp
Step Response
Programmable logic devices
212
PLD Definition
Programmable Logic Device (PLD):
An integrated circuit chip that can be configured
by end use to implement different digital
hardware
Also known as Field Programmable Logic Device
(FPLD)
213
PLD Advantages
Short design time
Less expensive at low
volume
Volume
Nonrecurring engineering cost
PLD
ASIC
214
PLD Categorization

PLD
SPLD
HCPL
D
FPGA CPLD
PLA PAL
Simple PLD
High Capacity PLD
Programmable Array Logic
Complex PLD
Field Programmable Gate Array
215
Programmable ROM (PROM)
2
N
x M
ROM
N input M output
Address: N bits; Output word: M bits

ROM contains 2
N
words of M bits each

The input bits decide the particular word that becomes available
on output lines


216
Logic Diagram of 8x3 PROM
Sum of minterms
217
Combinational Circuit
Implementation using PROM
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0
I0 I1 I2 F0 F1 F2
F0 F1 F2
218
PROM Types
Programmable PROM
Break links through current pulses
Write once, Read multiple times
Erasable PROM (EPROM)
Program with ultraviolet light
Write multiple times, Read multiple times
Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM)/ Flash
Memory
Program with electrical signal
Write multiple times, Read multiple times

219
PROM: Advantages and
Disadvantages
Widely used to implement functions with
large number of inputs and outputs
Design of control units (Micro-programmed
control units)
For combinational circuits with lots of dont
care terms, PROM is a wastage of logic
resources
220
Programmable Logic Array
k AND
gates
m OR gates
k X m links
m outputs
n inputs n x k links
n x k links
n x k x m PLA has 2n x k + k x m links
Sum of products
Programmable AND array + programmable OR array
221
PLA 4 X 6 X 2
222
Logic Implementation with PLA
Finite number of AND gates => simplify
function to minimum number of product
terms
Number of literals in a product term is not
important since we have all the input variables
Sharing of product terms between outputs =>
multiple-output minimization
223
Design with PLA
224
Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
Programmable AND array
Fixed OR array
Each output line permanently connected to a
specific set of product terms
Number of switching functions that can be
implemented with PAL are more limited than
PROM and PLA
225
PAL Logic Diagram
226
PAL Implications
Number of product terms per output >
number of product terms in each sum-of-
product expression
No sharing of product terms between outputs
227
Design with PAL
228
CPLD
Logic
Block
Logic
Block
Logic
Block
Logic
Block
I/O I/O
P
r
o
g
r
a
m
m
a
b
l
e


I
n
t
e
r
c
o
n
n
e
c
t

229
CPLD Logic Block
Simple PLD
Inputs
Product-term array
Product term allocation function
Macro-cells (registers)
Logic blocks executes sum-of-product expressions and stores
the results in micro-cell registers
Programmable interconnects route signals to and from logic
blocks

230
Major CPLD Resources
Number of macro-cells per logic block
Number of inputs from programmable
interconnect to logic block
Number of product terms in logic block
231
Structure of FPGA (Xilinx)
Logic Block
I/O Block
Interconnect
232
Configurable Logic Block CLB
233
Logic Function
Implemented as look-up table (LUT)
K-input LUT corresponds to 2
K
x 1 bit memory
K-input LUT can implement any k-input 1-
output logic function
234
Configuring FPGA
Configure CLB and IOB
Configure interconnect
Interconnect technology
SRAM
Anti-fuse (program once)
EPROM / EEPROM


235
Programming Technology
Name Re-programmable Volatile
EPROM yes (out of circuit) no
EEPROM yes (in circuit) no
SRAM yes (in circuit) yes
Antifuse no no
236
FPGA Applications
Glue Logic (replace SSI and MSI parts)
Rapid turnaround
Prototype design
Emulation
Custom computing
Dynamic reconfiguration
237
PLD Logic Capacity
SPLD: about 200 gates
CPLD
Altera FLEX (250K logic gates)
Xilinx XC9500
FPGA
Xilinx Vertex-E ( 3 million logic gates)
Xilinx Spartan (10K logic gates)
Altera

238
FPGA Design Flow
Design Entry
Design Implementation
Design Verification
FPGA Configuration
Unit-II
Doubly fed Induction machine
Block Schematic of Wind Turbine Driven Self-Excited DFIG
Switched reluctance motor
Why Switched Reluctance Motors?
Lets Focus on 3 Motor Types
AC Induction
Brushless DC
Switched Reluctance
AC Induction
Source: AC, Brushless, Switched Reluctance Motor Comparisons James R. Hendershot, Magna Physics Corporation
Brushless DC
Source: AC, Brushless, Switched Reluctance Motor Comparisons James R. Hendershot, Magna Physics Corporation
Switched Reluctance
Source: AC, Brushless, Switched Reluctance Motor Comparisons James R. Hendershot, Magna Physics Corporation
Dimensions, Volumes & Weight Comparisons
of the 3 Motor Types (NEMA 184 T Frame)
Source: AC, Brushless, Switched Reluctance Motor Comparisons James R. Hendershot, Magna Physics Corporation
Motor Comparison for BEVs & HEVs
Design # Accel 0-60 SRM kW SRM KVA AC Induc kW AC Induc KVA BLDC kW BLDC KVA
1 13.00 42.1 69.80 57.88 72.35 75.50 83.90
2 13.25 42.56 69.86 56.90 71.13 74.43 82.70
3 13.48 42.61 69.90 56.00 70.00 73.27 81.41
4 13.58 45.88 69.85 55.68 69.60 72.78 80.86
5 13.85 39.1 64.76 54.70 68.38 71.46 79.40
6 14.78 34.6 59.35 51.68 64.60 67.39 74.88
7 14.10 38.98 64.68 53.85 67.30 70.34 78.15
8 15.01 35.38 59.32 50.10 62.60 66.40 73.77
9 10.10 68.12 101.40 72.70 90.88 95.67 106.30
10 8.74 69.95 109.30 83.04 103.80 109.60 121.80
Source: Advantages of Switched Reluctance Motor Applications to EV and HEV: Design and Control Issues M. Ehsani, et al, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 36, No 1, January/February 2000
What About Noise?
In Summary
Due to the absence of rotor windings, SRM is very simple to construct, has a low inertia and allows
an extremely high-speed operation. SRM operates in constant torque from zero speed up to the
rated speed. Above rated speed up to a certain speed, the operation is in constant power. The
range of this constant power operation depends on the motor design and its control. Designing a
motor with high constant power range to base speed (e.g. at least 4:1), is not hard to achieve with
SRM, and has a great effect in designing a lower power motor that can produce significant torque.

The absence of rotor copper loss eliminates the problem that the induction motor has associated
with rotor cooling due to its poor thermal effects. The absence of permanent magnets on the rotor
eliminates the problem that the Brushless DC motor has with high temperature environments
whereby the magnets can lose their magnetization.

The SRM has many advantages, mostly resulting from its simple structure. SRM is normally low cost
because of its extremely simple construction. Moreover, The SRM operation is extremely safe and
the motor is particularly suitable for hazardous environments. The SRM drive produces zero or
small open circuit voltage and short circuit current.

Furthermore most SRM converters are simple because the current is unipolar. The SRM drive is
immune from shoot through faults, unlike the inverters of induction and brushless dc motors. Due
to the inductive nature of the motor, the power factor of the SRM is lower and requires a higher
rated converter when compared to induction or BLDC motors.

Brushless dc machine
Unit-III
Permanent Magnet Synchronous
and Variable Reluctance Motors



Introduction
Permanent magnet synchronous motors have the
rotor winding replaced by permanent magnets. These
motors have several advantages over synchronous
motors with rotor field windings, including:

Elimination of copper loss
Higher power density and efficiency
Lower rotor inertia
Larger airgaps possible because of larger coercive
force densities.
Introduction (contd)
Some disadvantages of the permanent magnet
synchronous motor are:

Loss of flexibility of field flux control
Cost of high flux density permanent magnets is high
Magnetic characteristics change with time
Loss of magnetization above Curie temperature

Permanent Magnets
Advances in permanent magnetic materials over the last
several years have had a dramatic impact on electric
machines. Permanent magnet materials have special
characteristics which must be taken into account in
machine design. For example, the highest performance
permanent magnets are brittle ceramics, some have
chemical sensitivities, all have temperature sensitivity,
and most have sensitivity to demagnetizing fields.
Proper machine design requires understanding the
materials well.
B-H Loop
A typical B-H loop for a permanent magnet is shown
below. The portion of the curve in which permanent
magnets are designed to operate in motors is the top
left quadrant. This segment is referred to as the
demagnetizing curve and is shown on the next
slide.


Demagnetizing Curve




Demagnetizing Curve (contd)
The remnant flux density B
r
will be available if the
magnet is short-circuited. However, with an air gap
there will be some demagnetization resulting in the
no-load operating point, B. Slope of no-load line is
smaller with a larger air gap. With current flowing in
the stator, there is further demagnetization of the
permanent magnet causing the operating point to
shift to C at full load.
Demagnetizing Curve (contd)
Transients or machine faults can lead to a worst-case
demagnetization as shown which results in permanent
demagnetization of the permanent magnet. The recoil
line following the transient is shown and shows a
reduced flux density compared to the original line. It is
clearly important to control the operation of the
magnets to keep the operating point away from this
worst-case demagnetization condition.
Permanent Magnetic Materials
Alnico - good properties but too low a coercive force
and too square a B-H loop => permanent
demagnetization occurs easily

Ferrites (Barium and Strontium) - low cost, moderately
high service temperature (400C), and straight line
demagnetization curve. However, B
r
is low => machine
volume and size needs to be large.
Permanent Magnet Materials
(contd)
Samarium-Cobalt (Sm-Co) - very good properties
but very expensive (because Samarium is rare)
Neodymium-Iron-Boron (Nd-Fe-B) - very good
properties except the Curie temperature is only
150C



Permanent Magnet Materials
(contd)




PM Motor Construction
There are two types of permanent magnet motor
structures:
1) Surface PM machines
- sinusoidal and trapezoidal
2) Interior PM machines
- regular and transverse




Circuit Model of PM Motor (contd)
Based on the recoil line, we can write:





where P
rc
, the permeance, is the slope of
the line. From this equation we can write:
0
0
( )
rc
P
F F
|
=

0 r rc
P F | =
Equivalent Circuit Model of PM
Motor
Rearranging the slope equation, we get:



This equation suggests the following equivalent circuit
for a permanent magnet:



0
rc
F F
P
|
=
Equivalent Circuit Model of PM
Motor (contd)
It can be shown that the mmf, flux and permeance
are the mathematical duals of current, voltage,
and inductance, respectively. Therefore, the
following electrical equivalent circuits can be used
to represent the magnetic circuit:


Equivalent Circuit Model of PM
Motor (contd)
We can now use this equivalent circuit of the
permanent magnets on the rotor and the
previous equivalent equivalent circuits of the
synchronous motor to develop a set of qd0
equivalent circuits for the permanent magnet
synchronous motor. Assuming the PM
synchronous motor has damper cage windings
but no g winding, the qd0 equivalent circuits are
as shown on the next slide.
Equivalent Circuit Model of PM
Motor (contd)







Equivalent Circuit Model of PM
Motor (contd)
Here the PM magnet inductance L
rc
can be lumped
with the common d-axis mutual inductance of the
stator and damper windings, and the combined d-
axis mutual inductance indicated by L
md
. Also, the
current i
m
is the equivalent magnetizing current for
the permanent magnet referred to the stator side.
qd0 Equations for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor
The qd0 equations for a permanent magnet motor are
given in the table below:




qd0 Equations for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor
(contd)



qd0 Equations for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor
(contd)
The developed electromagnetic torque expression has
three components:
1) A reluctance component (which is negative for L
d
<L
q
)
2) An induction component (which is asynchronous
torque)
3) An excitation component from the field of the
permanent magnet.
qd0 Equations for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor
(contd)
The mutual flux linkages in the q- and d-axes may be
expressed by:



The winding currents can be expressed (as before) as:

'
( )
mq mq q kq
L i i = +
' '
( )
md md d m kd
L i i i = + +
q mq
q
ls
i
L

=
d md
d
ls
i
L

=
'
'
'
kq mq
kq
lkq
i
L

=
'
'
'
kd md
kd
lkd
i
L

=
qd0 Equations for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor
(contd)
Combining these equations gives:




where .

Similar expressions for
mq
and L
MQ
can be written
for the q-axis.
'
'
'
d kd
md MD m
ls lkd
L i
L L

| |
= + +
|
\ .
'
1 1 1 1
MD ls lkd md
L L L L
= + +
qd0 Equations for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor
(contd)
Under steady state conditions where e=e
e
as in the case
of E
f
in the wound field synchronous motor, we can
express e
e

m
or x
md
i
m


by E
m
, the permanent magnets
excitation voltage on the stator side. If the stator
resistance is neglected and the E
f
term in the earlier
torque expression replaced by E
m
, the torque of a
permanent magnet synchronous motor in terms of the
rms phase voltage V
a
at its terminal can be written as:
2
1 1
3 sin sin 2
2
a m
e a
e d q d
V E P
T V
X X X
o o
e
(
| |
| |
= +
( |
|
|
( \ .
\ .

Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor
A line-start permanent magnet motor has magnets
embedded in the rotor to provide synchronous
excitation and a rotor cage provides induction
motor torque for starting. Thus it is a high
efficiency synchronous motor with self-start
capability when operated from a fixed frequency
voltage source.
Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)
The simulation equations for the PM synchronous
motor are given below:


Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)




Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)
The Simulink file s4 in Ch.7 Ong implements a simulation of a
line-start 3u PM synchronous motor connected directly to a
60Hz, 3u supply of rated voltage. The overall block diagram
is:

Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)
This slide and the next few slides show the internal
blocks of the Simulink model.




Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)




Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)




Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)





Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)





Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)




Simulation of PM Synchronous
Motor (contd)






Trapezoidal Surface Magnet
Motor
A trapezoidal surface permanent magnet motor is
the same as a sinusoidal PM motor except the 3u
winding has a concentrated full-pitch distribution
instead of a sinusoidal distribution.



Trapezoidal Surface Magnet Motor
(contd)
This 2-pole motor has a gap in the rotor magnets to
reduce flux fringing effects and the stator has 4 slots
per phase winding per pole. As the machine rotates
the flux linkage will vary linearly except when the
magnet gap passes through the phase axis. If the
machine is driven by a prime mover, the stator
phase voltages will have a trapezoidal wave shape as
shown on the next slide.
Trapezoidal Surface Magnet Motor
(contd)




Trapezoidal Surface Magnet Motor
(contd)
An electronic inverter is required to establish a six-
step current wave to generate torque. With the
help of an inverter and an absolute-position sensor
mounted on the shaft, both sinusoidal and
trapezoidal SPM motors can serve as brushless dc
motors (although the trapezoidal SPM motor gives
closer dc machine-like performance).
Synchronous Reluctance Motor
A synchronous reluctance motor has the same
structure as that of a salient pole synchronous
motor except that it does not have a field winding
on the rotor.
Synchronous Reluctance Motor
(contd)
The stator has a 3u, symmetrical winding which creates
a sinusoidal rotating field in the air gap. This causes a
reluctance torque to be created on the rotor because
the magnetic field induced in the rotor causes it to align
with the stator field in a minimum reluctance position.
The torque developed in this type of motor can be
expressed as:
2
( )
3 sin 2
2 2
ds qs
e s
ds qs
L L
P
T
L L
o
| |

| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
Synchronous Reluctance Motor
(contd)
The reluctance torque stability limit can be seen to occur
at (see figure below).
/ 4 o t =
Synchronous Reluctance Motor
(contd)
Iron laminations separated by non-magnetic materials
increases reluctance flux in the q
e
-axis. With proper
design, the reluctance motor performance can approach
that of an induction motor, although it is slightly heavier
and has a lower power factor. Their low cost and
robustness has seen them increasingly used for low
power applications, such as in fiber-spinning mills.
Variable Reluctance Motors
A variable reluctance motor has double saliency, i.e. both
the rotor and stator have saliency. There are two groups
of variable reluctance motors: stepper motors and
switched reluctance motors. Stepper motors are not
suitable for variable speed drives.



Ref: A. Hughes, Electric Motors and Drives, 2nd. Edn. Newnes
Switched Reluctance Motors
The structure of a switched reluctance motor is shown
below. This is a 4-phase machine with 4 stator-pole
pairs and 3 rotor-pole pairs (8/6 motor). The rotor has
neither windings nor permanent magnets.


Switched Reluctance Motors
(contd)
The stator poles have concentrated winding rather
than sinusoidal winding. Each stator-pole pair
winding is excited by a converter phase, until the
corresponding rotor pole-pair is aligned and is then
de-energized. The stator-pole pairs are sequentially
excited using a rotor position encoder for timing.
Switched Reluctance Motors
(contd)
The inductance of a stator-pole pair and corresponding
phase currents as a function of angular position is
shown below.
Switched Reluctance Motors
(contd)
Applying the stator pulse when the inductance profile
has positive slope induces forward motoring torque.

Applying the stator pulse during the time that the
inductance profile has negative slope induces
regenerative braking torque.

A single phase is excited every 60 with four
consecutive phases excited at 15 intervals.
Switched Reluctance Motors
(contd)
The torque is given by:




where m=inductance slope and
i=instantaneous current.
2
1
2
e
T mi =
Switched Reluctance Motors
(contd)
Switched reluctance motors are growing in popularity
because of their simple design and robustness of
construction. They also offer the advantages of only
having to provide positive currents, simplifying the
inverter design. Also, shoot-through faults are not an
issue because each of the main switching devices is
connected in series with a motor winding. However, the
drawbacks of this type of motor are the pulsating nature
of their torque and they can be acoustically noisy
(although improved mechanical design has mitigated this
problem.)

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