Radioactivity

Radioactive Decays 1
Radioactive Decays
transmutations of nuclides
Radioactivity means the emission of alpha (o) particles,
beta (|) particles, or gamma photons () from atomic nuclei.
Radioactive decay is a process by which the nuclei of a
nuclide emit o, | or rays.
In the radioactive process, the nuclide undergoes a
transmutation, converting to another nuclide.
A Summary of Radioactive Decay Kinetics
What is decay rate?
How does decay rate vary with time?
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of
nuclei. Initially (at t = 0), we have N
o
nuclei, and at time t, we
have N nuclei. This rate is proportional to N, and the
proportional constant is called decay constant .

dN
A = = N Integration gives
d t

ln N = ln N
o
t or N = N
o
e
t
Also A = A
o
e
t

Variation of N as a function of time t
N
N
o
t
N = N
o
e
-
t
Also A = A
o
e
-
t
Radioactive Decay Kinetics - plot
Number of radioactive
nuclei decrease
exponentially with time
as indicated by the
graph here.
As a result, the
radioactivity vary in the
same manner.
Note N = A
N
o
= A
o
Decay Constant and Half-life
Variation of N as a function of time t
N
N
o
t
N = N
o
e
- t
Also A = A
o
e
- t
Be able to apply these
equations!
N = N
o
e
t
A = A
o
e
t
ln N = ln N
o
t
ln A = ln A
o
t
Determine half life, t

Ln(N or A)
t
ln N
1
ln N
2

=
t
1
t
2
t
* = ln 2
Apparent Radioactivity of 3 Nuclides
ln A
ln A
total
ln A
1
ln A
2
ln A
3
t
Ln A
t
Radioactive Decay of Mixtures
The graph shows radioactivity of a sample containing 3 nuclides with
rather different half life. Explain why, and how to resolve the mixture.
Analyze and explain
Radioactive Consecutive Decay and Growth
Radioactivity of Decay Product
238
U
234
Th +
4
o
Activity due to
238
U
Activity due to
234
Th
234
Th
234
Pa + |
Ln A
t
Total Activity
Explain the variation of total radioactivity versus time in a sample
containing one pure radioactive nuclide, but its daughter is also
radioactive with a much shorter half life.
Radioactive consecutive decay animation
See Simulation in Radioactive Decay in
SCI270 website
The simulation will be used to illustrate
various conditions.
Applications of Radioactive Decay Kinetic
Nuclide Half life
219
Th
90
1 s
26
Na
11
1s
40
Cl
17
1.4 min
32
P
15
14.3 d
14
C
6
5730 y
235
U
92
7.04x10
8
y
238
U
92
4.46x10
9
y

Half life is not affected by chemical and
physical state of matter.
Dating is an application of radioactive
decay kinetics. Describe the principle for
this method.
Anthropologists, biologists, chemists,
diagnosticians, engineers, geologists,
physicists, and physicians often use
radioactive nuclides in their respective
work.
Decay and Transmutation of Nuclides
Alpha, o, decay emits a helium nucleus from an atomic nucleus.
Transmutation of Nuclides in Alpha Decays
A
P
Z

A 4
D
Z 2
+
4
He
2
Alpha Decay
A
P
Z A
4
D
Z
2
4
He
2
How do nuclides transform in alpha decay?
Heavy Nuclide alpha emitters

235
U
92

231
Th
90
+
4
o
2
(t
, 7.1310
8
y)

238
U
92

234
Th
90
+
4
o
2
(t
, 4.5110
9
y)

208
Po
84

204
Pb
82
+
4
o
2
(t
, 2.9 y)
Nuclide Transmutation of o Decay
A
P
Z

A 4
D
Z 2
+
4
He
2
How do nuclides transform in alpha decay?
Mass and charge change by what?
light nuclides
5
He
1
n
0
+
4
o
2
(t
, 210
-21
s),

5
Li
1
p
1
+
4
o
2
(t
, ~10
-21
s),
8
Be 2
4
o
2
(t
, 210
-16
s).
Some rare earth (
144
Nd,
146
Sm,
147
Sm,
147
Eu,
...
174
Hf) are o emitters:
144
Nd
140
Ce +
4
o
2
(t
, 510
15
y),

174
Hf
170
Yb +
4
o
2
(t
, 210
15
y).
Nuclide Transmutation of o Decay
A
P
Z

A 4
D
Z 2
+
4
He
2
Nuclide Transmutation of | Decay
Electron emission
A
P
Z
+ v
A
D
Z + 1
+ |
(absorbs a neutrino)
or

A
P
Z

A
D
Z + 1
+ |
+ v (emit antineutrino, v)
Positron emission

A
P
Z

A
D
Z 1
+ |
+
+ v
or

A
P
Z
+ v
A
D
Z 1
+ |
+.
Electron capture

A
P
Z
+ e

A
D
Z 1
+ v
or

A
P
Z
+ e
+ v
A
D
Z 1
Beta decay consists of three processes: emitting an electron, emitting a
positron, or capturing an electron from the atomic orbital.
What is beta decay?
Other examples of beta decay
14
C
6

14
N
7
+ |

+ v (t
, 5720 y)
40
K
19

40
Ca
20
+ |
+ v (1.27e9 y)
50
V
23

50
Cr
24
+ |
+ v (6e15 y)
87
Rb
37

87
Sr
38
+ |
+ v (5.7e10 y)
115
In
49

115
Sn
50
+ |
+ v (5e14 y)
Beta Decay of Neutron
Neutron
Proton
Electron
Nuclide Transmutation of |
Decay examples
1
n
0

1
p
1
+ |
+ v
What is the relationship between the
parent nuclide and the daughter
nuclide in |
decay?
In |
+
decay, the atomic number decreases by 1.
21
Na
11

21
Ne
10
+ |
+
+ v (t
, 22s)
30
P
15

30
Si
14
+ |
+
+ v (2.5 m)
34
Cl
17

34
S
16
+ |
+
+ v (1.6 s)
116
Sb
51

116
Sn
50
+ |
+
+ v (60 m)
Nuclide Transmutation of |
+
Decay examples
What is the relationship between the
parent nuclide and the daughter
nuclide in |
+
decay?
Electron Capture and X-ray Emission
EC
X-ray
Nuclide Transmutation of EC examples
48
V
23

48
Ti
22
+ + |
+
+ v (50%)
48
V + e

48
Ti + v (+ X-ray) (50%)
What is the relationship
between the parent nuclide
and the daughter nuclide in
electron capture (EC)?
What can be detected in EC?
Electron Capture and Internal Conversion
Internal
conversion
EC
Electron capture and internal conversion
Explain electron capture and
internal conversion processes.
What are internal conversion
electrons?
99m
Tc
99
Tc +
60
Co
60m
Ni + | + v (antineutrino)
60m
Ni
60
Ni +
60
Co
60
Ni + | + + (t
, 5.24 y)
24
Na
24
Mg + | + + (2.75 MeV, t
, 15 h).
Transmutation of gamma decay
Gamma decay emits energy from atomic nucleus as photons.
Gamma, , decay follows o and | decay or from isomers.
What is gamma decay?
-decay and Internal Conversion
Internal Conversion Electron and X-ray Emission
Internal
conversion
electron
X-ray
Internal conversion electrons show up in | spectrum.
X-ray energy is slightly different from the photon energy.
What are internal conversion electrons?
Transmutation in Other Decays
Transmutation in proton decays
53m
Co
27
(1.5 %)
52
Fe
26
+
1
p
1

(98.5 %)
53
Fe
26
+ |
+
+ v.
Beta-delayed Alpha and Proton Emissions:
8
B
8m
Be + |
+
+ v (t
, 0.78 s)
8
Li
8m
Be + |
-
+ v (t
, 0.82 s)
8m
Be 2 o
These are called |
+
o, and |
o decays respectively.
Another examples of |
+
o and |
+
p
+
decay:
20
Na
20
Ne + |
+
+ v (t
, 0.39 s)

20
Ne
16
O + o
111
Te
111
Sb + |
+
+ v (t
, 19.5 s)

111
Sb
110
Sn + p
+
.
Apply
conservation of
mass, nucleon,
and charge to
explain
transmutation in
all radioactive
decays.
Radioactivity - Nuclide Chart for Nuclear Properties
Nuclide: a type of atoms with a certain number of protons, say Z, and mass
number M, usually represented by
M
E
Z
, E be the symbol of element Z.
Periodic table of elements organizes chemical properties of elements.
Nuclide chart organizes unique nuclear properties of nuclides (isotopes).
Nuclear properties:
mass, binding energy, mass excess, abundance
radioactive decay mode, decay energy, half-life, decay constant,
neutron capture cross section, cross section for nuclear reactions,
energy levels of nucleons,
nuclear spin, nuclear magnetic properties etc.
Nuclide Chart for Nuclear Properties
Be
4
6
Be, ?
p
6.019725
7
Be, 53.3 d
EC 0.86
7.01928
8
Be, 0.06
fs
2 o 0.86
8.005305
9
Be, 100%
9.012182
10
Be,
1.6x10
6
y
| 0.5
Li
3
5
Li, 0.18 s
p or o
5.01254
6
Li, 7.42%
6.015121
7
Li, 92.5%
7.016003
8
Li, 0.85 s
o & | 16
8.022485
He
2
3
He,0.0001
%
3.01603
4
He,100%
4.0026
5
He,?
n, o
5.01222
6
He 0.81s
| 3.51
6.018886
7
He
8
He, 1s
|, |,n, 14
8.03392
H
1
1
H,99.99
%
1.007825
2
H, 0.015%
2.0142
3
H, 12.26y
| 0.0186
3.014102
Symbol, abundance or half-life,
(fs =10
15
s, second, minute, year)
N
0
1
n
0,
12 m
|, 0.78
1.008665
Decay mode: o, |, energy MeV,
Mass in amu
| p #
n
#
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Chart of some light nuclides with a key in the large square.
Isotopes Isotones, and Isobars
No. of Relationships of Isotopes
protons Isobars, and Isotones on
Chart of Nuclides

I S O T O P E S
S S
O O
T B
O A
N R
E S
S

No. of neutrons
Isomers
Recognize the locations of
isobars isotones
isomers Isotopes
on the chart of nuclides
helps you remember
meaning of these terms,
and interpret the
transformation of nuclides
in nuclear decays and
nuclear reactions.
a Nuclide
Families of Radioactive Decay Series
Radioactive Decay Series of
238
U
238
U
92

234
Th
90
+
4
o
2
(t
1/2
4.5e9 y)
234
Th
90

234
Pa
91
+ |
+ v (t
1/2
24.1 d)

234
Pa
91

234
U
92
+ |

+ v (t
1/2
6.7 h)
234
U
92
. . . (continue)
. . .

206
Pb
82

Only alpha decay changes the mass number by 4.
There are 4 families of decay series.
4n, 4n+1, 4n+2, 4n+3,
n being an integer.
The Decay Path of 4n + 2 or
238
U Family 238
U
234
U
234
Pa
234
Th 230
Th
226
Ra
222
Rn

218
At
218
Po
214
Po
214
Bi
214
Pb

210
Po

210
Bi
206
Pb
210
Pb

206
Tl
210
Tl

206
Hg
Minor route
Major route
o decay
| decay
Radioactivity -
238
U radioactive decay series
Radioactivity -
239
Np radioactive decay series
The Decay Paths of the 4
n
+ 1 or
237
Np
93
Family Series
237
Np
93
233
U
92
(2e6 y)
(1.6e5 y)
233
Pa
91

229
Th
90
225
Ac
89
(7300 y; minor path)
(10 d)
225
Ra
88
221
Fr
87

217
At
85

213
Po
84
(1 min)

209
Bi
83

213
Bi
83

209
Pb
82

209
Tl
81
Radioactivity - A Closer Look at Atomic Nuclei
Key terms:
mass, (atomic weight)
atomic number Z
mass number A or M
proton, neutron
nucleon, baryon
(free nucleon)
Lepton (electron)
Proton
neutron
Considering the atomic
nucleus being made up of
protons and neutrons
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Properties of Baryons and Leptons
Baryons_____ _____Leptons______
Proton Neutron Electron Neutrino Units
Rest 1.00727647 1.0086649 5.485799e-4 <10
10
amu
Mass 938.2723 939.5653 0.51899 <5x10
7
MeV
Charge* 1 0 1 0 e

Spin (
h
/
2t
)
Magnetic
moment* 2.7928474
N
-1.9130428
N
1.00115965
B

Its a good idea to know the properties of these subatomic particles.
You need not memorize the exact value for rest mass and magnetic
moment, but compare them to get their relationship.
Mass of Protons, Neutrons & Hydrogen Atom
Proton Neutron Electron Neutrino Units
Rest 1.00727647 1.0086649 5.485799e-4 <10
10
amu
Mass 938.2723 939.5653 0.51899 <5x10
7
MeV
Mass of protons, neutrons and the H atom
m
n
- m
p
= 1.0086649 - 1.00727647
= 0.0013884 amu (or 1.2927 MeV)
= 2.491 m
e

m
H
= (1.00727647 + 0.00054856) amu
= 1.007825 amu
Decay energy of neutrons
1.0086649 1.007825 amu = 0.000840 amu (= 0.783 MeV)
Magnetic Moment of Particles
A close-loop current in a uniform magnetic
field experiences a torque if the plane of the
loop is not perpendicular to the magnetic field.
i
Nuclear Models
Each model has its own merit. Realize the concept of these models
and apply them to explain nuclear phenomena such as nuclear
decay and nuclear reactions.
Liquid drop model: strong force hold nucleons together as
liquid drop of nucleons (Bohr). R
nucleus
= 1.2 A
1/3
.
Gas model: nucleons move about as gas molecules but strong
mutual attractions holds them together (Fermi).
Shell model: nucleons behave as waves occupying certain
energy states worked out by quantum mechanical methods.
Each shell holds some magic number of nucleons.
Magic numbers: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126. Nuclei with magic number
of protons or neutrons are very stable.
The potential well of nucleons in a nucleus for the shell model
The concept of quantum theory will be elaborated during the lecture.
Maria Goeppert-Mayer
(1906-1972), received
the 1963 Nobel Prize
in Physics for her
discovery of the magic
numbers and their
explanation in terms of
a nuclear shell model
with strong spin-orbit
coupling.
Her former student (at Johns Hopkins), Robert Sachs,
brought her to Argonne at "a nice consulting salary".
(Sachs later became Argonne's director.) While there,
she learned recognized the "magic numbers. While
collecting data to support nuclear shells, she was at first
unable to marshal a theoretical explanation. During a
discussion of the problem with Enrico Fermi, he
casually asked: "Incidentally, is there any evidence of
spin-orbit coupling?" Goeppert Mayer was stunned. She
recalled: "When he said it, it all fell into place. In 10
minutes I knew... I finished my computations that night.
Fermi taught it to his class the next week". Goeppert
Mayer's 1948 (volunteer professor at Chicago at the time)
theory explained why some nuclei were more stable
than others and why some elements were rich in
isotopes.
The shell model
Quantum mechanics treats nucleons in a nucleus as waves.
Each particle is represented by a wavefunction.
The wavefunctions are obtained by solving a differential equation.
Each wavefunction has a unique set of quantum numbers.
The energy of the state (function) depends on the quantum numbers.
Quantum numbers are:
n = any integer, the principle q.n.
l = 0, 1, 2, ..., n-1, the orbital quantum number
s =
1
/
2
or -
1
/
2
the spin q.n.
J = vector sum of l and s
The wavefunction +
n,l

is even or odd parity.

The Shell Model
Mayer in 1948 marked the
beginning of a new era in the
appreciation of the shell model.
For the first time, Mayer
convinced us the
existence of the higher
magic numbers with
spin-orbit couplings.
Radioactivity &
the shell model
Energy states of nuclei are
labelled using
J = j
1
+ j
2
+ j
3
+ j
4
+ ...
plus parity,
J +
Some Excited States of the
7
Li
Nuclide

+ ___________ 6.54 MeV

7
/
2
+ ___________ 4.64

___________ 0.478
3
/
2
___________ Ground State

Energy Level Diagram of Nucleons

n l j + (2j+1) Shell
Notation total

7 6
13
/
2
+ 1i 14 ~126
6 0 3p 2
6 1
3
/
2
3p 4
6 2
5
/
2
2f 6
6 3
7
/
2
2f 8
6 4
9
/
2
1h 10

6 5
11
/
2
1h 12 ~82
5 0 + 3s 2
5 2
3
/
2
+ 2d 4
5 3
5
/
2
+ 2d 6
5 4
7
/
2
+ 1g 8

5 4
9
/
2
+ 1g 10 ~50
4 0 2p 2
4 1
3
/
2
2p 4
4 2
5
/
2
1f 6

4 3
7
/
2
1f 8 ~28

3 0 + 2s 2 ~20
3 1
3
/
2
+ 1d 4
3 2
5
/
2
+ 1d 6

2 0 1p 2 ~8
1
3
/
2
1p 4

1 0 + 1s 2 ~2

Presentation Speech by Professor I. Waller,
member of the Nobel Committee for Physics (1963)
The discoveries by Eugene Wigner, Maria Goeppert Mayer and Hans
Jensen for which this year's Nobel Prize in physics has been awarded,
concern the theory of the atomic nuclei and the elementary particles. They
are based on the highly successful atomic research of the first three
decades of this century which showed that an atom consists of a small
nucleus and a surrounding cloud of electrons which revolve around the
nucleus and thereby follow laws which had been formulated in the so-called
quantum mechanics. To the exploration of the atomic nuclei was given a
firm foundation in the early 1930's when it was found that the nuclei are
built up by protons and neutrons and that the motion of these so-called
nucleons is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics.
Radioactive Decay Energy
The law of conservation of mass and energy covers all reactions.
Sum of mass before reaction = Sum of mass after reaction + Q
Q = Sum of mass before reaction - Sum of mass after reaction
Energy in Radioactive Decay
Before decay
Recoiling nucleus
|
Interesting Items:
Spectrum of particles
Energy in gamma decay
Energy in beta decay
Energy in alpha decay
Gamma Decay Energy
Gamma, , rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from atomic nuclei.
The bundles of energy emitted are called photons.
E
i
____________

h v
E
f
____________
E
others
_________
Excited nuclei are called
isomers, and de-excitation is
called isomeric transition (IT).
Energy for photons
h v = E
i
- E
f

Types of Isomeric Transitions and their Ranges of Half-life
Radiation Type Symbol AJ At Partial half life t
(s)
Electric dipole E
1
1 Yes 5.7e-15 E
3
A
2/3

Magnetic dipole M
1
1 No 2.2e-14 E
3

Electric quadrupole E
2
2 No 6.7e-9 E
5
A
4/3

Magnetic quadrupole M
2
2 Yes 2.6e-8 E
5
A
2/3

Electric octupole E
3
3 Yes 1.2e-2 E
7
A
2

Magnetic octupole M
3
3 No 4.9e-2 E
7
A
4/3

Electric 2
4
-pole E
4
4 No 3.4e4 E
9
A
8/3

Magnetic 2
4
-pole M
4
4 Yes 1.3e5 E
9
A
2

Nature of Gamma Transitions
Various Gamma Transitions in
7
Li
3
/
2
ground state
0.778 MeV
7
/
2
+ 4.64 MeV
+ 6.54 MeV
M
1
E
1
E
3
M
3
M
2
Gamma Decay Energy and Spectrum
Gamma transition of
7
Li
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O
18
E
Intensity 2
h
+
2+
0+
3.27 MeV
1.98
1.98 MeV
3.27 MeV
5.25 MeV
Gamma Decay Energy and Spectrum
Beta Decay Spectrum
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensity
or # of |
Energy of |
E
max
Internal conversion electrons
Beta Decay
Spectra
E
Intensity
|
|
+
64
Cu
64
Zn
64
Ni
40%|
41%EC
19%|
+
0.66 MeV
0.58 MeV
2+
0+
0+
1+
Decay of
64
Cu
illustrates several
interesting features
of beta decay and
stability of nuclides.
Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli: Neutrino with spin
1
/
2
is emitted simultaneously with beta,
carrying the missing energy.
Intensity
or # of |
Energy of |
E
max
A Beta Decay Scheme

P
Z
D
Z+1
+ |
+ v

Correct notes
?
Positron Decay Energy
Positron Emission
+
v
Positron emission
P
Z
D
Z1
+ e
+ |
+
+ v + E
decay
.
E
decay
= M
P
- M
D
2 m
e
.
Beta Decay Energy and Half-life
A Sargent Diagram
Log (s
1
)
Log E (eV)
210
Pb
212
Pb
214
Pb
208
Tl
234
Pa
-
214
Bi
-
212
Bi
-
228
Ac
-
210
Bi
The higher the decay
energy, the shorter
the half-life, but
there are other
factors.
Alpha Decay Energy & Spectrum
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
E
o
MeV
No.
of
o
8 10

211
Po
o particle energy: |
98.9% 10.02 MeV |
0.5% 9.45 |
0.5% 8.55 |
|

207
Pb |

7
/
2
+
0.90 MeV
0.5%

5
/
2
+
0.57 MeV
0.5%

1
/
2
+ 98.9%
Radioactive Decays
Main Topics (Summary)
Radioactive decay, decay kinetics, applications
Transmutation in o, |, and decays
The atomic nuclei, properties of baryons, models for the nuclei
Radioactive decay energy

Radioactivity

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