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BA(H) APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

COGNITIVE PROCESSES -II

DR. ANURADHA SHARMA

Intelligence

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Intelligence is a complex topic. An overview of some of this complexity is provided in Hunt (1995). Howard Gardner, David Perkins, and Robert Sternberg have all been quite successful in helping spread knowledge about the meaning of "intelligence" and applications of this knowledge to education
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Intelligence is a combination of the ability to: Learn. This includes all kinds of informal and formal learning via any combination of experience, education, and training. Pose problems. This includes recognizing problem situations and transforming them into more clearly defined problems. Solve problems. This includes solving problems, accomplishing tasks, fashioning products, and doing complex projects.
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This definition of intelligence is a very optimistic one. It says that each of us can become more intelligent. We can become more intelligent through study and practice, through access to appropriate tools, and through learning to make effective use of these tools (Perkins, 1995

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Howard Gardner Some researchers in the field of intelligence have long argued that people have a variety of different intelligences. A person may be good at learning languages and terrible at learning music--or vice versa. A single number (a score on an IQ test) cannot adequately represent the complex and diverse capabilities of a human being.
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Howard Gardner has proposed a theory of multiple intelligences. He originally identified seven components of intelligence (Gardner, 1983). He argues that these intelligences are relatively distinct from each other and that each person has some level of each of these seven intelligences. More recently, he has added an eighth intelligence to his list (Educational Leadership, 1997)
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of Howard Gardner and use some of his ideas in their teaching. For example, in creating a team of students to do a particular project, a teacher may select a team whose collective "highest" talents encompass most of the eight areas of intelligence identified by Gardner.

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The teacher may encourage a team to divide up specific tasks in line with specific high levels of talents found on a team. Alternatively, a teacher may encourage or require that team members not be allowed to work in their areas of highest ability in order to encourage their development of knowledge and skills in other areas.
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The following table lists the eight intelligences identified by Howard Gardner. It provides some examples of the types of professionals who exhibit a high level of an intelligence. The eight intelligences are listed in alphabetical order.

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IntelligenceExamples Discussion Bodily-kinesthetic Dancers, athletes, surgeons, crafts peopleThe ability to use one's physical body well. Interpersonal Sales people, teachers, clinicians, politicians, religious leadersThe ability to sense other's feelings and be in tune with others. Intrapersonal People who have good insight into themselves and make effective use of their other intelligencesSelf-awareness. The ability to know your own body andmind LinguisticPoets, writers, orators,communicatorsThe ability to communicate well, perhaps both orally and in writing, perhaps in several languages.
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Logical-mathematicalMathematicians, logiciansThe ability to learn higher mathematics. The ability to handle complex logical arguments. MusicalMusicians, composersThe ability to learn, perform, and compose music.NaturalisticBiologists, naturalistsThe ability to understand different species, recognize patterns in nature, classify natural objects.

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SpatialSailors navigating without modern navigational aids, surgeons, sculptors, paintersThe ability to know where you are relative to fixed locations. The ability to accomplish tasks requiring threedimensional visualization and placement of your hands or other parts of your body.

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Students can come to understand that they are more naturally gifted in some areas than in others, but that they have some talent in all of the eight areas identified by Howard Gardner. Curriculum and instruction can be developed to help all students make progress in enhancing their talents in each of these eight areas of intelligence.
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Charles Spearman

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Charles Spearman (1927) (figure 7) has proposed a theory of two factors (General Ability "g" and Special Ability), which is based on the observation that those people who perform well on the tests of general intelligence do usually perform well on tests for special abilities (like verbal or mathematical processing) and vice-versa.
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He was the first to offer a tenable psychometric definition of intelligence, and is therefore considered to be the father of classical test theory (Jensen, 1994). In a famous article, General Intelligence Objectively Determined and Measured (1904), Spearman proposed the idea that intelligent behavior is generated by a single, unitary quality within the human mind or brain.

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Spearman derived this theoretical entity, called the general factor, or simply g, through a new statistical technique that analyzed the correlations among a set of variables. This technique, called factor analysis, demonstrated that scores on all mental tests are positively correlated; this offered compelling evidence that all intelligent behavior is derived from one metaphorical pool of mental energy.
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Although proponents of multiple intelligence theory reject this interpretation, factor analysis remains one of the most important tools in 21 st century intelligence research.

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Charles Spearman started his psychology career relatively late in life, beginning his Ph.D. studies at age 34 and accepting his first university position at age 42.

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Thus, Spearman's main idea was that gifted people are gifted in general and dull people are generally dull the same way. This theory was widely accepted for practical use. The tests, directly measuring Spearman's "g" are in a wide practice nowadays. Raven Standard Progressive Matrices, developed by J.C. Raven and distributed by US Psychological Corporation is test battery of this kind.

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There's a belief, that most fundamental principles in psychometrics and testing became available by 1930, and that with a few exceptions, the remainder of the 20th century was devoted to applying or refining these principles. The later theories divided into two groups with one tended to be based on Spearman's model,
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other followers divide intelligence into several components. Some notable theories are listed below

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Thurstone

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(1938) believed that Spearman's hypothesis of a general factor did not fully reflect the intelligence and was a practical success only because of the simple averaging of more primary mental abilities. He identified 7 of them, which he considered would describe intelligence more specifically. The abilities are verbal relations, verbal fluency, number, memory, perceptual speed, induction, and spatial visualization.
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Though this theory is accepted, it is not widely used for practical assessment because of the greater difficulties with analysis and applications.

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Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities." The abilities that he described were: Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency
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The Five Ordered Steps of Problem-Solving I. Define problem A. Why this step is the most important step. B. Three pitfalls in defining the problem. 1. 2. Two reasons we have difficulty with this step:

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II. Generate solutions A. Using existing solutions: 1. Algorithms: a problem-solving strategy that--if all the steps are followed--is guaranteed to eventually lead to a solution. Two problems with algorithms: 1. They involve many steps 2. They only fit problems where there is one right answer. Thus, there are algorithms for solving some math problems and playing certain simple games, but not for problems with human relationships.

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2. Heuristics: a general rule that guides problem-solving, but does not guarantee a perfect solution. One type: The representativeness heuristic: a general rule used when people decide whether something is a typical case. If the target matches their memory of a typical instance, they will decide that the target is a typical case. Examples of the representativeness heuristic: Advantages: Disadvantages:
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. Barriers to generating new solutions 1. Set: a rigidity in problem-solving due to wanting to continue to do things the old way. Examples: Functional fixedness: a form of set where we consider only the usual function of an object and overlook other possible uses. 2. STM's limits

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III. Evaluate alternatives Why we "satisfice" (choose the first satisfactory option) rather than "optimize" (choose the best [optimum] option) What it takes to optimize: 1. 2. 3. Why we fail to optimize: 1. Because of the limits of STM, we do poorly at: Considering all the options Considering all the pros and cons of each option To get around the limits of short-term memory, you might use the computer to help you.

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2. Because we rely on the availability heuristic (which should have been called the accessibility heuristic), we are bad at estimating the frequency of events. That is, we estimate how often something happens based on how easy it is to remember examples of that event occurring. The problem is that some events, even if they don't occur very often, are easy to recall (airplane crashes). (If you came here from reading about the survey, click here to return ) 3. We are vulnerable to framing effects (the way the problem is worded affects the decision that we will make) because we are loss adverse: we hate to think that we might lose something. We like to gain, but we HATE to lose. Insurance companies and bankers love us for this.
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A major issue of the topic of higher cortical function is the degree to which mental and cognitive functions are located in specific brain regions. Language is one of the most elaborate cognitive behaviors.

The pioneer of brain localization of language function was a French neurologist, Pierre Paul Broca, working around the time of our civil war 1861. Broca extended a theory proposed by Gall (Franz Joseph Gall) that the cortex was divided into 35 or more regions for attributes such as hope, generosity, and secretiveness.
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According to Gall, these were cortical organs. They grew with use, much as muscles did with exercise, and caused bumps and ridges on the skull. Thus, was born the science of phrenology. Hundreds and thousands of skulls were collected and bumps were correlated to attributes and personalities of those individuals. From a study of these correlations, so-called experts would go out into the population and read the bumps of living people to divine their attributes and personalitiesall for a fee, of course.
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Brocas work differed from Galls. Broca argued for examining brains of people with clinical disorders for lesions that might then indicate the brain region responsible for the disorder. Thus was born the field of neuropsychology which flourishes today and has provided much of what we know about localized function in the brain.
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Wernicke proposed that language involves separate motor and sensory programs located in different cortical regions. The motor program, located in Brocas area was suitably situated in front of the motor area that controls the mouth, tongue, and vocal cords. The sensory program, located in Wernickes area, was suitably surrounded by the posterior association cortex that integrates auditory, visual, and somatic sensations
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