How Cells Release Stored Energy

Chapter 8

8.1 Main Types of Energy-Releasing Pathways

Anaerobic pathways
Evolved first Dont require oxygen Start with glycolysis in cytoplasm Completed in cytoplasm

Aerobic pathways
Evolved later Require oxygen Start with glycolysis in cytoplasm Completed in mitochondria

Summary Equation for Aerobic Respiration

C6H1206 + 6O2
glucose oxygen

6CO2 + 6H20
carbon dioxide water

CYTOPLASM
2
ATP

glucose Glycolysis
e- + H+
2 NADH

ATP

(2 ATP net)

2 pyruvate
e- + H + 2 CO2 4 CO2

Overview of Aerobic Krebs Respiration Cycle

2 NADH 8 NADH

e- + H + e+ H+

2 FADH2

ATP

e-

Electron Transfer Phosphorylation

H+ e- + oxygen water

32

ATP

Typical Energy Yield: 36 ATP Figure 8.3 Page 135

The Role of Coenzymes

NAD+ and FAD accept electrons and
hydrogen

Become NADH and FADH2

Deliver electrons and hydrogen to the

electron transfer chain

8.2 GLYCOLYSIS

Glucose
A simple sugar (C6H12O6) Atoms held together by covalent bonds
In-text figure Page 136

Glycolysis Occurs in Two Stages

Energy-requiring steps
ATP energy activates glucose and its six-carbon derivatives

Energy-releasing steps
The products of the first part are split into three-

carbon pyruvate molecules

ATP and NADH form

Energy-Requiring Steps glucose

ATP ADP P glucose-6-phosphate

Energy-Requiring Steps of Glycolysis 2 ATP invested

P fructose-6-phosphate ATP ADP P P fructose1,6-bisphosphate

P PGAL

P PGAL

Figure 8.4(2) Page 137

P NAD+ Pi PGAL

NADH

NAD+ Pi

PGAL NADH

P P 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate ADP ATP P 3-phosphoglycerate P 2-phosphoglycerate H2 O P

P P Energy1,3-bisphosphoglycerate ADP Releasing ATP P 3-phosphoglycerate Steps P 2-phosphoglycerate P PEP H2 O

PEP ADP
ATP pyruvate

ADP
ATP pyruvate Figure 8.4 Page 137

Glycolysis: Net Energy Yield

Energy requiring steps:
2 ATP invested

Energy releasing steps:

2 NADH formed 4 ATP formed

Net yield is 2 ATP and 2 NADH

8.3 Second Stage Reactions

Preparatory reactions
Pyruvate is oxidized into two-carbon acetyl units and carbon dioxide NAD+ is reduced

Krebs cycle
The acetyl units are oxidized to carbon dioxide NAD+ and FAD are reduced

Preparatory Reactions
pyruvate NAD+ NADH acetyl-CoA coenzyme A (CoA)
O O carbon dioxide

CoA

Krebs Cycle
NADH NAD+

=CoA acetyl-CoA CoA

oxaloacetate

citrate H2O H2O

malate
H2O FADH2 FAD succinate fumarate

NAD+

isocitrate
O O

NADH

a-ketoglutarate

NAD+ NADH

CoA
O O

succinyl-CoA Figure 8.6 Page 139 ATP ADP + phosphate group

The Krebs Cycle

Overall Reactants
Acetyl-CoA 3 NAD+ FAD ADP and Pi

Overall Products
Coenzyme A 2 CO2 3 NADH FADH2 ATP

Results of the Second Stage

All of the carbon molecules in pyruvate end up in carbon dioxide Coenzymes are reduced (they pick up electrons and hydrogen) One molecule of ATP forms Four-carbon oxaloacetate regenerates

Coenzyme Reductions during First Two Stages

Glycolysis Preparatory reactions Krebs cycle 2 NADH

2 NADH 2 FADH2 + 6 NADH 2 FADH2 + 10 NADH

Total

8.4 Electron Transfer Phosphorylation

Occurs in the mitochondria Coenzymes deliver electrons to electron transfer chains Electron transfer sets up H+ ion gradients Flow of H+ down gradients powers ATP formation

Creating an H+ Gradient
OUTER COMPARTMENT

NADH

INNER COMPARTMENT

Making ATP: Chemiosmotic Model

ATP INNER COMPARTMENT ADP + Pi

Importance of Oxygen
Electron transport phosphorylation requires the presence of oxygen
Oxygen withdraws spent electrons from the electron transfer chain, then combines with H+ to form water

Summary of Energy Harvest (per molecule of glucose)

Glycolysis
2 ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation

Krebs cycle and preparatory reactions

2 ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation

Electron transport phosphorylation

32 ATP formed

Energy Harvest Varies

NADH formed in cytoplasm cannot enter mitochondrion It delivers electrons to mitochondrial membrane Membrane proteins shuttle electrons to NAD+ or FAD inside mitochondrion Electrons given to FAD yield less ATP than those given to NAD+

Efficiency of Aerobic Respiration

686 kcal of energy are released
7.5 kcal are conserved in each ATP When 36 ATP form, 270 kcal (36 X 7.5) are captured in ATP Efficiency is 270 / 686 X 100 = 39 percent Most energy is lost as heat

8.5 Anaerobic Pathways

Do not use oxygen
Produce less ATP than aerobic pathways

Two types
Fermentation pathways

Anaerobic electron transport

Fermentation Pathways
Begin with glycolysis
Do not break glucose down completely to carbon dioxide and water Yield only the 2 ATP from glycolysis Steps that follow glycolysis serve only to regenerate NAD+

Lactate Fermentation
GLYCOLYSIS
C6H12O6 2 ATP energy input 2 ADP 2 2 NAD+ NADH

ATP
energy output

2 pyruvate

2 ATP net LACTATE FORMATION electrons, hydrogen from NADH

2 lactate

GLYCOLYSIS

Alcoholic Fermentation

C6H12O6 2 ATP
energy input 2 ADP 2 NAD+

2
4 ATP 2 pyruvate

NADH

energy output 2 ATP net ETHANOL FORMATION 2 H2O

2 CO2 2 acetaldehyde

electrons, hydrogen from NADH

2 ethanol

Anaerobic Electron Transport

Carried out by certain bacteria
Electron transfer chain is in bacterial plasma membrane Final electron acceptor is compound from environment (such as nitrate), not oxygen ATP yield is low

FOOD fats fatty acids glycogen complex carbohydrates proteins amino acids NH3 urea carbon backbones

glycerol

simple sugars
glucose-6-phosphate GLYCOLYSIS PGAL pyruvate acetyl-CoA

8.6 ALTERNATIVE
ENERGY SOURCES
Figure 8.11 Page 145

KREBS CYCLE

Evolution of Metabolic Pathways

When life originated, atmosphere had little
oxygen Earliest organisms used anaerobic pathways Later, noncyclic pathway of photosynthesis increased atmospheric oxygen

Cells arose that used oxygen as final

acceptor in electron transport

8.7 Processes Are Linked

sunlight energy
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

water + carbon dioxide

AEROBIC RESPIRATION

sugar molecules

oxygen

In-text figure Page 146