DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Biology II

FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Ingestion The taking in of food. Digestion Physical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller molecules. Absorption Movement of nutrients into the bloodstream. Defecation Removal of indigestible waste.

MOUTH ANATOMY
Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth
1. Parotid glands 2. Submandibular glands 3. Sublingual glands

Functions of saliva:
Dissolves chemicals in food so they can be detected by the taste buds. Moistens food so that it can be swallowed. Contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme.

DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH

There are two types of digestion: Mechanical digestion , which is the physical process of breaking food into smaller pieces. Chemical digestion, when enzymes catalyze chemical reactions that lead to the breakdown of food molecules.

DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH

Mechanical digestion in the mouth occurs through mastication, or the chewing and grinding of food by the teeth. Chemical digestion occurs when salivary amylase catalyzes the breakdown of starch (polysaccharide) into maltose (disaccharide).

Teeth (Incisors) Hard Palate Palatal Arches Palatine Tonsils Soft Palate

Uvula Tongue
Frenulum Vestibule (between
lower lip and gingiva)

TEETH
The outermost layer of the tooth is enamel.
Made of calcium phosphate, the hardest biologically-made substance.

Most of the inner tooth is dentin, which is similar to bone except without any living cells.

The living cells of the tooth are located in the pulp cavity.
All blood vessels and nerves into this cavity come through the root canals at the base of the tooth.

Crown (Enamel) Gingiva Dentin Bone Tissue (Mandible) Pulp Cavity Root Canal

TOOTH DISORDERS
Cavities or caries occur when naturally-occuring bacteria within the mouth overgrow due to the presence of food particles.
The bacteria produce acid as a waste product, which dissolves the calcium phosphate enamel.

If cavities are allowed to become too deep, a root canal will clean out and dissolve all the tissue in the pulp cavity, leaving an antibiotic paste behind.
The tooth no longer has any living cells at this point.

TYPES OF TEETH
Incisors are blade-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth.
Clipping or cutting.

Cuspids (canines) are cone-shaped with a pointed tip.

Tearing or slashing.

Bicuspids and molars have flattened tops.

Crushing, mashing, or grinding.

Wisdom teeth are an additional set of molars that often develop in locations where they cannot erupt.
Vestigial structures.

Incisors Cuspid Bicuspids

Bicuspids

Cuspid Incisors

PHARYNX
Food is formed into a chewed, moistened ball called a bolus. The bolus is pushed back toward the pharynx with the tongue. While swallowing, all passageways except to the esophagus are blocked.
The uvula moves backwards, blocking the nasal cavity. The epiglottis folds down, blocking the trachea.

ESOPHAGUS
The bolus moves through the esophagus by a series of smooth muscle contractions called peristalsis. The bolus eventually enters the stomach through the cardiac sphincter.

Fundus Esophagus Cardiac Sphincter Lesser Curvature Duodenum

Body (Rugae)

Greater Curvature Pyloric Region

Pyloric Sphincter

STOMACH
The stomach is a muscular organ made of four sections:
Cardiac Region closest to the esophagus and heart. Fundus Superior bulge in stomach. Body Middle section Pyloric Inferior region, closest to the small intestines.

The stomach has internal folds called rugae, that increase the surface area for digestion. The innermost lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium.

STOMACH
The cardiac sphincter is a ring of smooth muscle intended to allow food into the stomach, but not out.
Exceptions include vomiting, heartburn, acid reflux.

STOMACH
Presence of food in the stomach stimulates the release of the hormone gastrin. Gastrin causes the stomach glands to produce:
Pepsinogen, an inactive enzyme produced by chief cells. This converts to pepsin, an active enzyme that breaks down proteins into amino acids. A layer of mucus to protect the stomach from being dissolved or digested. Hydrochloric acid lowers the pH of the stomach contents, which activates pepsin. This is produced by parietal cells .

No absorption occurs in the stomach, except for aspirin and alcohol.

Chief Cells Parietal Cells

Rugae

Mucus Cells

STOMACH-INTESTINES
The partially digested food is now referred to as chyme. The stomach will release small amounts (30mL) of chyme into the small intestine at a time through the pyloric sphincter .

SMALL INTESTINES
The first section of the small intestines is the duodenum. This is where most of the actual digestion occurs. Digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver (gall bladder) are both sent here.

Falciform Ligament Liver

Gall Bladder
Duodenum Pancreas

DUODENUM
The pancreas releases bicarbonate and enzymes into the duodenum:
Bicarbonate neutralizes the stomach acid, stopping the action of pepsin..
Pancreatic amylase (starch maltose) Lipase (Lipids Fatty acids) Nuclease (DNA / RNA Nucleotides) Trypsin (Protein Amino acids)

The liver releases bile, which separates fats into smaller droplets to increase the rate of digestion by lipase.

JEJUNUM-ILEUM
Food is moved through the small intestine by peristalsis, just like in the esophagus. Absorption of the endproducts of digestion occurs all along the jejunum and ileum.
Villi are present in all cells along the intestines to increase the surface area for absorption.

JEJUNUM-ILEUM
Active transport moves the substances (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, etc) across the cells of the intestines into the blood. Substances are then transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.

LARGE INTESTINE
The beginning of the large intestine is the cecum.
The appendix is attached here.

Three segments of the large intestine:

Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon

Ends with the rectum.

Oral Cavity Sublingual Gland Submandibular Gland Trachea

Parotid Gland Uvula Tongue Pharynx

Esophagus Diaphragm Liver Pancreas

Ascending Colon ileum Appendix

Spleen Stomach
Transverse Colon Descending Colon Jejunum Sigmoid Colon Rectum Anus

LARGE INTESTINE
No digestive enzymes are present here. Bacteria that reside in the large intestine digest some of the remaining nutrients, producing vitamins K, B, and some gases. Water and vitamins are absorbed, while the remaining material is eliminated as feces.
Undigested food residue Mucus

Bacteria
Water

LARGE INTESTINE
Movement through the large intestine is slow, but powerful. Peristalsis occurs 3-4 times per day. A buildup of feces in the rectum causes the defecation reflex .
The internal anal sphincter (involuntary smooth muscle) is relaxed.
The external anal sphincter (voluntary muscle) must be relaxed before defecation can actually occur.

ACCESSORY ORGANS
The pancreas, in addition to producing digestive enzymes, also controls blood sugar. Islets of Langerhans contain the cells that actually produce these hormones.
Insulin Stimulates the absorption of glucose from blood and production of glycogen for storage. Glucagon Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, raising blood sugar.

The liver, in addition to making bile, detoxifies any poisons absorbed by the digestive tract.

APPENDIX
The appendix is a small dead-end tube connected to the beginning of the ascending colon.
The appendix is believed to be a vestigial structure. It used to be a larger cecum an organ that herbivores use to ferment and digest cellulose.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
The stomach is held in place with the other abdominal organs by the greater and lesser omentum The intestines are held together by mesentary.

MUMPS
A viral infection that causes painful swelling of the salivary glands, especially the parotid gland. Airborne and highly contagious. Can be vaccinated against.

HEARTBURN
Influx of stomach acid into the esophagus. Can be the result of excessive acid production in the stomach, or a faulty cardiac sphincter.

PEPTIC ULCERS
An erosion of the inner stomach or duodenum lining. Causes include:
Inflammation from bacterial infection.

Certain painkillers (aspirin, ibuprofen) can inhibit the production of stomach mucus.
Stress (not fully understood why)

VOMITING
There are multiple sources of stimulation that can lead to vomiting.
Irritation of the gastrointestinal tract. Irritation of the pharynx (gag reflex) Multiple trigger zones in the brain.

The actual process of vomiting has several physiologic steps.

VOMITING
Salivary glands increase production of saliva to protect teeth from acid erosion. A deep breath is taken to prevent aspiration.
Inhalation of foreign substances, such as vomit, can lead to serious respiratory infections like pneumonia.

Retroperistalsis (reverse peristalsis) sweeps the digestive tract contents through a relaxed pyloric sphincter, into the stomach.
Abdominal muscles contract, cardiac sphincter relaxes, and contents exit through the esophagus.

DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is the presence of abnormally loose or liquid feces. There are multiple types of diarrhea, all of which are caused by an excess of water inside the intestines.
Some bacteria (Cholera, E. coli O157:H7) produce a toxin that creates an ion imbalance in the intestines. This results in an osmotic flow of water into the intestines. Laxatives often contain an ion (like magnesium) that will intentionally create an osmotic imbalance.

LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
People that are lactose intolerant do not produce the lactase enzyme.
The gene that produces this enzyme shuts off after infancy, when breastfeeding ends.

Undigested lactose eventually reaches the large intestine, causing an osmotic imbalance (diarrhea). Bacteria are able to ferment the lactose, producing excessive amounts of gas.

DIABETES
The pancreas stops producing or does not produce enough insulin, resulting in high blood sugar levels. Type I Diabetes is the result of the immune system destroying the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas.
No insulin is produced. The patient is dependent on insulin injections.

Type II Diabetes occurs when there is an insulin deficiency in the body, or the cells do not respond properly to insulin.
Most common cause is obesity.