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THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Arteries Capillaries

circulatory system
The circulatory system consists of the blood and lymphatic vascular systems. The blood vascular system is composed of the following structures: - heart, whose function is to pump the blood; - arteries, a series of efferent vessels that become smaller as they branch and whose function is to carry the blood, with nutrients and oxygen, to the tissue; - capillaries, a diffuse network of thin tubules that anastomoses profusely and through whose walls the interchange between blood and tissue takes place; - veins, which represent the convergence of the capillaries into a system of larger channels that convey products of metabolism, CO2, etc, toward the heart.

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS

All blood vessels have a number of structural features in common, although in the smallest vessels (capillaries and venules) the 3 tunics are greatly simplified. Blood vessels are structurally adapted according to physiologic requirements.

Tunics
Blood vessels are usually composed of the following layers, or tunics: Tunica Intima Tunica Media Tunica Adventitia

Tunica Intima
The intima consists of a layer of endothelial cells lining the vessels interior surface. These cells rest on a basal lamina. Beneath the endothelium is the subendothelial layer, consisting of loose connective tissue that may contain occasional smooth muscle cells. Both the connective tissue fibers and smooth muscle cells, when present, tend to be arranged longitudinally.

Tunica Media
The media consists chiefly of concentric layers of helically arranged smooth muscle cells. Interposed among the smooth muscle cells are variable amounts of elastic and reticular fibers and proteoglycans. Smooth muscle cells are the cellular source of this extracellular matrix.

Tunica Media
In arteries, the media is separated from the intima by an internal elastic lamina. This lamina, composed of elastin, has gaps (fenestrae) that allow substances to diffuse to and nourish cells deep in the vessel wall. In larger arteries, a thinner external elastic lamina is often found separating the media from the outer tunica adventitia.

The adventitia
The adventitia consists of loose connective tissue (principally of longitudinally oriented collagen and elastic fibers). Collagen in the adventitia is type I; (in the media, rich in reticular fibers, collagen is mainly type III). The adventitial layer gradually becomes continuous with the enveloping connective tissue of the organ through which the vessel is running

Vasa Vasorum
In large vessels, vasa vasorum (vessels of the vessels) branch profusely in the adventitia and the outer part of the media. The vasa vasorum provide metabolites to the adventitia and the media in larger vessels, since the layers are too thick to be nourished solely by diffusion from the lumen. These vessels are more frequent in veins than in arteries. The greater abundance of vasa vasorum can be attributed to the paucity of oxygen and nutritional substances in venous blood.

Innervation
Most blood vessels that contain smooth muscle in their walls are supplied with a profuse network of unmyelinated sympathetic nerve fibers (vasomotor nerves) whose neurotransmitter is norepinephrine. Discharge of norepinephrine from these nerves results in vasoconstriction. Arteries in skeletal muscle also receive a cholinergic vasodilator nerve supply.

ARTERIES
These structures transport blood to tissues. They resist changes in blood pressure in their initial portions and regulate blood flow in their terminal portion. Arteries are classified according to their size and structure into arterioles, muscular arteries (small- and medium-calibres), elastic, and mixed type (elasticmuscular) arteries. In general, the walls of arteries are thicker than the walls of veins of the same overall diameter

Arterioles
These are generally less than 0.5 mm in diameter and have relatively narrow lumens. The lumen is lined by endothelial cells. The subendothelial layer is very thin, and an internal elastic lamina is lacking except in the largest arterioles. The media is muscular and generally composed of 1-5 circularly arranged layers of smooth muscle cells. The adventitia is thin and shows no external elastic lamina.

Muscular Arteries

Most of the named arteries in the human body are muscular arteries. The intima is composed of endothelium and subendothelial layer. An internal elastic lamina is prominent. The media may contain up to 40 layers of smooth muscle cells, although the number of layers diminishes as the artery becomes smaller. These cells are intermingled with variable numbers of elastic lamellae (depending on the size of the vessels) as well as reticular fibers and proteoglycans.

Muscular Arteries
An external elastic lamina is present in larger muscular arteries. The adventitia consists of collagen and elastic fibers, a few fibroblasts, and adipose cells. Vasa vasorum, and nerves are also found in the adventitia, and these structures may penetrate to the outer part of the media.

Large Elastic Arteries


These include the aorta and its large branches. This type of artery has the following characteristics: The intima is thicker than the corresponding tunic of a muscular artery. The subendothelial layer is thick. The connective tissue fibers of the subendothelial layer display a longitudinal orientation and play an important role in the distortion of the endothelial layer of cells during rhythmic contractions and dilations of the vessels.

The media
The media consists of a series of concentrically arranged perforated elastic laminae whose number increases with age (there are 40 in the newborn, 70 in the adult). Between the elastic laminae are smooth muscle cells, reticular fibers, and ground substance consisting mainly of chondroitin sulfate. The tunica adventitia, which does not show an external limiting lamina, is relatively underdeveloped and contains elastic and collagen fibers.

Some branches of aorta (the subclavian arteria) are attributed to the arteries of mixed (elasticmuscular) type, since there are more smooth muscle cells in the media of such arteries.

Histophysiology of Arteries
The large arteries are called conducting arteries, since their major function is to transport blood away from the heart. These arteries also serve to smooth out the large fluctuations in pressure created by the heartbeat. During ventricular contraction (systole), the elastic laminae of conducting arteries are stretched and reduce the pressure change. During ventricular relaxation (diastole), ventricular pressure drops to a low level, but the elastic rebound of conducting arteries helps maintain arterial pressure. As a consequence, arterial pressure and blood flow decrease and become less variable as the distance from the heart increases. The function of medium-sized arteries, also known as distributing arteries, is to furnish blood to various organs by contracting or not contracting (as a result of local chemical or more generalized neural input).

CAPILLARIES
Capillaries that have structural variations permit different levels of metabolic exchange between blood and surrounding tissue. Capillaries are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells of mesenchymal origin rolled up in the form of a tube and enclosing a cylindrical space. The average diameter of capillaries is small, varying from 7 to 9 m. The total length of capillaries in the human body has been estimated at 96,000 km. The external surfaces of these cells usually rest on a basal lamina.

Endothelial cells
Endothelial cells are polygonal when viewed face on; they are elongated in the direction of blood flow. The nucleus causes the cell to bulge into the capillary lumen. The cell tapers toward the margins, where it may be 0.2 m or less in thickness. Endothelial cells are held together by zonulae occludentes and an occasional desmosome.

Pericytes
Pericytes, mesenchymal cells with long cytoplasmic processes, partly surround the endothelial cells, at various locations along capillaries and small venules. Enclosed in their own basal lamina, which may fuse with that of the endothelial cells. The presence of myosin, actin, and tropomyosin in pericytes strongly suggests that these cells also have a contractile function. Pericytes constitute the tunica media of these small vessels.

The continuous, or somatic, capillary


The continuous, or somatic, capillary is characterized by the absence of fenestrae in its wall. This type of capillary is found in all kinds of muscle tissue, connective tissue, exocrine gland, and nervous tissue. Numerous pinocytotic vesicles are present on both surfaces of capillaries. These vesicles are responsible for the transport of macromolecules in both directions across the endothelial cell.

Fenestrated, or visceral, capillaries


Fenestrated, or visceral, capillaries are characterized by the presence of large fenestrae in the walls of endothelial cells. These fenestrae are 60-80 nm in diameter and are closed by a diaphragm that is thinner than a cell membrane. A continuous basal lamina is present. Fenestrated capillaries are encountered in tissue where rapid interchange of substances occurs between the tissues and the blood, as in the kidney, the intestine, and the endocrine glands. Macromolecules can cross the capillary wall through these fenestrae to enter the tissue spaces.

sinusoidal capillaries
Sinusoidal capillaries are found mainly in the liver and in hematopoietic organs such as the bone marrow and spleen. The interchange between blood and tissues is thus greatly facilitated by the structure of the capillary wall.
Sinusoids in liver

Sinusoid in bone marrow

Types of capillaries

Types of capillaries

apillaries

Functions of capillaries
Capillaries perform at least 3 important functions: Permeability: They serve as a selective permeability barrier Metabolic functions Antithrombogenic function

Functions of capillaries
Metabolic functions: Capillary endothelial cells can metabolize a wide variety of substrates. Activation Conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. The polypeptide angiotensin contributes to the regulation of blood pressure by binding initially to vascular endothelial cells. This endothelial stimulus is later transmitted to arterial smooth muscle cells, stimulating their contraction and thus causing an increase in blood pressure. Inactivation Conversion of active substances (bradykinin, serotonin, prostaglandins, norepinephrine, thrombin, etc) to biologically inert compounds. Lipolysis Breakdown of lipoproteins to yield triglycerides (energy) and cholesterol (substrates for steroid-hormone synthesis and membrane structure). Secrete vasoactive factors controlling blood flow (e.g. nitrous oxide, vasoactive peptides). Produce molecules which mediate the acute inflammatory reaction (e.g. interleukins 1,6, and 8).

Functions of capillaries
Antithrombogenic function Endothelial cells prevent contact of blood platelets with the subendothelial connective tissue, which induced the aggregation of platelets and formation of thrombi following fibrin coagulation. Synthesize and secrete molecules which promote protective thrombus formation (e.g. von Willebrand factor (Factor VIII)) and minimize pathological thrombus formation (e.g. prostacyclin).

Arteriovenous Anastomoses (AVA)


Direct communication between arterial and venous circulation is often observed. These arteriovenous anastomoses are distributed through the body and generally occur in small vessels. These interconnections are abundant in skeletal muscle and the skin of the hands and feet. When vessels of the AVA contract, all the blood must pass through the capillary network. When they relax, some blood flows directly to a vein instead of circulating in the capillaries.

AVA
True AVA (shunts) carry pure arterial blood, and atypical AVA carry mixed blood.

AVA types
The feature of this anastomosis is the presence of smooth muscle cells (longitudinal direction in arrangement) within the intima. Besides, some muscle cells occur within the media. SMC form projections (pulvinar tunicae internae) into the lumen. During contraction this muscular pillow may close the lumen.

Types of AVA
Epithelioid anastomose has thick muscular wall in which the muscle cells in the media are short and thick with central nuclei. They form a sphincter that on section resembles a stratified cuboidal epithelium. So these cells have been termed epithelioid cells. The lumen of the connecting channel may be occluded by contraction (or swelling) of epithelioid cells. Epithelioid AVA can be simple or complex glomerular type.

Glomerular type
Glomus bodies consist of a highly convoluted segment of an arteriovenous shunt enveloped by common adventitia (dense connective tissue. These AVA are richly innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. The glomus bodies have an important role in controlling the circulation in various organs. They also participate in such physiologic phenomena as menstruation, erection, thermoregulation, and the regulation of blood pressure.

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