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a unit area perpendicular to the energy flow. I A2 (A = amplitude) , I 1/r2 (r = distance measured from source to a point) The decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure the intensity of a sound. On the decibel scale (logarithmic scale) the smallest audible sound is 0dB. A sound 10 times more powerful is 10dB. A sound 100 times more powerful than near total silence is 20 dB and so on. The audible range of human hearing is 20Hz- 20kHz. The response of the human ear is measured on a logarithmic scale as the ear is very sensitive to a wide range of frequencies (up to a million (106 Hz). To accommodate this range a log scale known as the decibel scale (dB) is used. The ear responds to an increase in sound intensity by a factor or power of 10 which means that a sound intensity of 40dB is 10 (101) times as intense as a 30dB sound 100 (102) times as intense as a 20dB sound.
above this level can actually be felt and cause pain. The slightest sound that the human ear can detect is called the threshold of hearing.
frequency range (max) appear loudest to the ear. In addition, the ear compares the loudness of two sounds in terms of the ratio of the two amplitudes rather than the difference of their amplitudes. Because of this the decibel scale is used.
N.B The human ear hears each 20dB increase on this
above this level permanent ear damage (e.g. gunshots, firecrackers, explosions) Threshold of pain,. E.g. using a drill, jet engine rock concerts, car horn a door slam, telephone ringing nearby (~3m) normal conversations quiet street/ whisper quiet room/ library threshold of hearing, (sound just audible)
**Very important formula (in dB) = 10 log10 I / Io where: I = intensity Io = threshold intensity ( 1.0 x10-12 W/m2 ) *should be able to recall this
PQ1
A mosquito's buzz is often rated with a decibel rating
of 40 dB. Normal conversation is often rated at 60 dB. How many times more intense is normal conversation compared to a mosquito's buzz?
Ans: 100 times
PQ2
On a good night, the front row of the Twisted Sister
concert would surely result in a 120 dB sound level. An IPod produces 100 dB. How many IPods would be needed to produce the same intensity as the front row of the Twisted Sister concert? Ans: 100 Ipods
PQ3
At a busy street corner, the sound level is 70dB. What is the
PQ4
A noisy motorbike travels down ghost-rider street
emitting sounds at an intensity of 6x10-2 W/m2. What is the sound level in (dB) at which this occurs?
Ans: 108dB
called noise. Noise is said to be subjective as what may be considered noise to an adult may be music to the ears of a child. Loudness refers to how strong a sound seems when we hear it. This is related to the amplitude of the emitted sound wave. Likewise, this is a subjective response as what may be considered loud to one person may not necessarily be loud to another. Recall: The Pitch of a sound is its frequency
Lens
A lens is a transparent piece of glass or plastic with at least one
Types of Lens
Definitions
The principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centres of curvature of the
two surfaces, and passes through the middle of the lens. The focal length, f, of a lens is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. By convention, the focal length, f, of a converging lens is positive (+) in sign. Since the focus of a diverging lens is virtual, the focal length of such a lens is negative (-). The optical centre of a lens is the point midway between the lens surface on its principal axis. Rays passing through the optical centre are not deflected. The principal focus of a converging lens is the point to which all rays incident parallel to the principal axis converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is real. The principal focus of a diverging lens is the point from which all incident rays parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge after refraction by the lens. This focus is virtual.
real(object > F) and sometimes virtual (object F). F = focal point Has a positive (+) power (D).
Images
There are two (2) main types of images: - real -virtual real images - are produced from actual rays of light coming to a
Ray diagram 1
Rays of light passing through the optical centre are not deflected.
Ray diagram 2
Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis will converge to the principal focus for convex lens( forming a real and inverted image and diverge from the concave lens; appearing to have come from a principal focus on the same side as the object(image = virtual)
Ray diagram 3
Rays of light travelling through the principal focus (focal point) emerge parallel to the principal axis
Ray Diagrams
Power of Lenses
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal
From the formula, it is clear that the shorter the focal length, the greater the power. N.B The thicker the lens, the higher the power.
Example
Find the power of a lens if its focal length (f) = 20cm. Ans: P = 1 / 0.2m = 5D
spectacles to correct the sight of a short-sighted person. Calculate (a) its focal length and (b) the position and nature of the image it forms of an object 2.0m away from it.
lens to the object and is usually positive (+). The image distance, v, is the distance from the optical centre of the lens to the image.
Sign Convention
There is a sign convention that is adopted when using the lens
formula called the real is positive sign rule. For real object and image distances we put a plus (+) sign while for virtual object and image distances we put a minus (-) sign.
Magnification
The ratio of image size (or distance) to object size (or distance) is
12cm. Find the nature (real (+) or virtual (-), position and magnification of the image when the object distance is (a) 16cm and (b) 8cm
length 18cm. Find the nature (real or virtual) and position of the image. Ans: v = -36cm
Object < F
An object positioned before the focal point, F, yields an image that is: -virtual -upright -magnified
Object at F
For an object positioned at the focal point, F, the image is: -virtual and at infinity
An object between F and 2F produces an image that is: -real -inverted -enlarged
e.g. projectors
Object at 2F
For an object placed at 2F, the image formed is: -real -inverted -same size as object
e.g. telescope
about 25cm (near point) and to infinity (far point). The closest distance at which the eye can focus clearly is called the near point of the eye. As you get older the ability of the eye to accommodate is reduced and the near point increases. For example, a child can have a near point of 10cm while typically the value of the near point in young adults are 25cm. The farthest distance at which an object can be seen clearly is called the far point of the eye. N.B distant objects implies that the object is at infinity.
Depth of focus
The range of image distances over which the image
Accommodation
Accommodation is name given to the ability of the eye to change
its focal length and produce focused images of both distant and near objects on the retina. This is done by the action of the ciliary muscles on the lens which causes them to contract in bright light or when trying to focus on nearby objects and relaxes when viewing distant objects.
normally. Some of these include: 1) farsightedness (long-sight, hyperopia or Hypermetropia), 2) nearsightedness (short-sight or myopia), 3) astigmatism, 4) cataracts etc.
Short-sight (Myopia)
In this defect, the eye can only focus on nearby objects. Distant
objects appear blurry and the far point is reduced. The images are focused in front of the retina. Causes - eyeball too long - excessive curvature of the cornea
Correction
rays of light before entering the eye and converges to a point on the retina.
Long-sight (hyperopia)
In this defect, the eye cannot focus on nearby objects (only
distant objects ). The near point is somewhat greater than the normal 25cm, which makes exercises like reading difficult. Causes - eyeball too short - insufficient curvature of the cornea
Correction
Correction of Long-sight
Normal eye
PQ
Sue is farsighted with a near point of 100cm.
Reading glasses must have what lens power so that she can read a newspaper at a distance of 25cm? Assume the lens is very close to the eye
Astigmatism
is an eye defect in which the eye has two different focal lengths in two different planes. This causes multiple images to be focused on the retina creating a blurry sensation. Causes - irregular (barrel- shaped) curvature of the cornea N.B Cornea is normally spherical in shape
Astigmatism
Correction
vision(refractive) surgery.
Astigmatism cont
Cataracts
A clouding of the lens that affects vision.
Cataracts
Causes - mainly by aging - excessive ultraviolet light exposure
Cataracts
Magnifying glass
A convex lens is used as a magnifying glass due to its
magnification properties, that is, it produces highly magnified images of objects. As previously mentioned, this can only be attained when the object is the focal length, f, of the lens.
A simple Camera
The function of a simple camera is very similar to that of the eye.
It also has a convex (converging) lens which focuses the light from an object on to a light-sensitive film at the back of the camera (retina). A stop/diaphragm ( iris) allows the light on the central part of the lens only, which makes for greater clarity of the image, and a shutter (pupil) opens and closes at a speed depending on lighting conditions.
Eye vs Camera
Eye
Convex lens system produces a real
Camera
Convex lens system produces a real
inverted, diminished image on retina Light incident on the retina stimulates electrical impulses to the brain Can focus objects between near point and infinity Iris controls the amount of light energy entering the eye, pupil is open continuously. Focusing is achieved by changing the thickness of the eye lens
inverted, diminished image on the film Light incident on the film stimulates chemical changes in the photographic emulsion Can focus objects between a few centimetres (cm) from the lens and infinity Aperture diaphragm controls the amount of light energy reaching the film, in conjunction with the shutter, which is only opened for a predetermined time. Focusing is achieved by changing the distance between the lens and the film.