Motor Skills Learning and Acquisition Processes

Motor Skills: Learning and Acquisition Processes
Chapter 18
Sport Books Publisher
Outline:
Developing Movement Intelligence

Stages of Learning a Skill Feedback for Skill Learning Transfer of Motor Learning
Sport Books Publisher 2
Developing Movement Intelligence
Movement Intelligence
Following factors affect development of movement intelligence:

Starting at young age Learning time Instructor Equipment Progression
Starting the Learning Process at a Young Age
As early as the preschool years Basic skills = basis for other activities
Walking, throwing, catching
Skill should be taught correctly the first time to avoid development of bad habits
Providing Sufficient Learning Time
Without physical experience, skills cannot be effectively learned and maintained Sufficient time must be allotted for participating in PAs that enhance movement skills
Being Taught By Qualified Instructors
Instructors, physical educators, and coaches must be properly trained and have experience with teaching PA
This means having trained physical educators fill such positions, rather than math or music teachers who do not have the necessary background
The Use of Quality Equipment
Safe, appropriate, and well maintained

e.g., scaled down equipment for children
Lower basketball hoops Smaller soccer nets Lighter baseball bats
Effectiveness of teaching movement skills is directly related to the quality of equipment

Following the Right Progression
Teaching skills in an organized manner that makes skills easier to grasp and learn
Stages of Learning a Skill
10
Three general stages of motor learning have been identified
Each stage consists of:

Changes that occur as motor learning takes place Important features unique to each stage
Cognitive or Acquisition Stage
Begins when task first introduced Learner cognitively determines:

What the particular skill involves Performance goals required to perform the skill
Instructions:
Are verbally transmitted (verbal stage) Serve to convey the general concept of the skill
Self-talk and verbal reminders facilitate learning Performance: slow, jerky, and awkward
Associative or Stabilization Stage

Focused on performing and refining the skill Concentration is directed towards smaller details (e.g., timing) Performance: controlled and consistent Rapid performance improvements (somewhat slower than fist stage) Diminished self-talk
Autonomous or Application Stage
Performance: automatic and very proficient Attention demands:
Performance
improvements:
Slow Less obvious (e.g., reduced mental effort, improved style, reduced anxiety)
Feedback for Skill Learning
15
Information feedback: the information that occurs as a result of a movement Some information is received during the movement and some is provided as a result of the movement Feedback is one of the strongest factors that controls the effectiveness of learning
Feedback Classification
Information Feedback Intrinsic Feedback
Knowledge of Performance Knowledge of Results
Extrinsic Feedback
Knowledge of Performance
Instructor/Coach Parent/Friend Video replay Photographs Radar gun Stopwatch
Knowledge of Results
Vision Audition Touch

Muscle Feeling .
Basketball Golf Tennis service ace Darts .
Lap times Distance jumped Height jumped Judges score .

17
Intrinsic Feedback
Information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing an action

Knowledge of results Watching the tennis ball land in the opponents court
Knowledge of performance Arm extension when hitting the tennis ball
18
Extrinsic Feedback
Information that is provided to the learner by somebody else or some artificial means following a performance outcome Provides information above and beyond what is naturally available to the learner (augmented feedback) Can be controlled; when, how, how often
Extrinsic Feedback contd
Knowledge of results
Information about the degree of success
Not effective when outcome is obvious
Important when outcome is less obvious
Knowledge of performance
Information about the execution of a completed movement Example: took your eye off the ball, swing was a little late, etc.
Motivational Properties of Feedback
Extrinsic feedback serves to motivate the learner Error correction Therefore, a skilled instructor should be able to reinforce correct actions as well as point out errors
21
Feedback Can be a Crutch

Providing feedback continuously for a long period of time can lead to dependency Occasional feedback tends to enhance learning Various types of feedback that minimize dependency have been identified
Faded Feedback
High Gradually reduced (faded)
Feedback
Low
Degree of skill
High
Benefit: teacher can tailor feedback to respect individual differences

Bandwidth Feedback
No feedback provided Feedback provided
Range of correctness
Benefits:
1. Eventually faded feedback occurs 2. Lack of feedback = positive reinforcement 3. Movement consistency develops because learner is not encouraged to change movement on each trial
Summary Feedback
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9
Feedback
Feedback
Feedback
Benefits:
1. Generates movement consistency 2. Avoids overloading the learner
When in the Learning Process is Information Feedback Needed Most?
Cognitive stage Feedback is vital
Associative stage Faded, bandwidth, or summary feedback
Autonomous stage Feedback withdrawal
26
How Much Feedback is Necessary?
Novel tasks
Processing capacity can be easily overloaded Intense but selective instruction One important piece of information feedback at a time
27
How Precise Should Feedback Be?
Descriptive (general) feedback

Indicates something you did, right or wrong e.g., there was no follow through
Prescriptive (precise) feedback

Provides you with precise correction statements about how to improve your movements e.g., snap your wrist more on the follow through
Precise feedback generates far better results
28
High Precise Feedback
Performance
General Encouragement
Low Early
Blocks of Learning Trials

Late
29
What is the Best Timing for Information Feedback?

Short-term memory is very susceptible to loss Generally, the greater the delay of information provision the less effect the given information has Therefore, immediate feedback is more beneficial
Transfer of Motor Learning
31
Transfer of learning between two tasks generally increases as the similarity between them increases
Types of Transfer:
Positive vs. negative Near vs. far
Positive Transfer
e.g., Practicing drills and lead-up games with strong (positive) transfer to the actual game
Learning can be positively transferred from practice to game situation when drills are similar in nature to the criterion task
Negative Transfer
Not common
Activities that may negatively transfer to the criterion task need to be avoided when performance is critical
e.g., playing mini-golf before golf tournament

Factors Affecting Transfer

Movement Response/Patterns e.g., tennis & badminton Psychomotor Demands e.g., rowing, kayaking, & canoeing Cognitive Demands e.g., basketball & handball
Positive Transfer Example

Racquets Net Similar Water Dynamic
Negative Transfer Example

Ball
vs. birdie
shot variations
Boat
balance Coordination
Game
size and level of balance
purpose
Travel
on the court
Biomotor Demands e.g., sprint & long jump Psychological Demands
Explosive
power
No
take off and jump in sprinting

Shifting
Narrow
focus of attention in archery and darts

attention in hockey vs. judo and karate

35
Near Transfer
Desired when the learning goal is a task that is relatively similar to the training task Transfer of learning is specific and closely approximates the ultimate situation e.g., practicing various plays before a volleyball tournament
Far Transfer
Desired when interested in developing more general capabilities for a variety of skills Occurs from one task to another very different task Best applies when beginning to learn a skill e.g.,
overhand throw baseball throw, football throw, tennis serve, volleyball spike
Transfer Strategies
Training machines and stimulators Whole vs. part practice Lead-up activities and drills Mental rehearsal
38
Training Machines and Simulators
Closely mimic features of real-world task
Goal = positive transfer of learning from simulator to the target skill

Effectiveness depends on the ability to simulate motor as well as perceptual, conceptual, and biomotor elements
39
Whole vs. part practice
Part practice
Practicing independent components of motor skill Eventually, units of a task should transfer to the task as a whole e.g., gymnastics routine
Whole practice
Practicing skill as a whole e.g., golf swing
Part Practice
Effective for tasks serial in nature and relatively long duration

Effective as long as the actions of one part do not interact strongly with the actions of the next part (i.e., independent)
Whole Practice
Used with discrete tasks of short duration where components interact intensely
Practicing individual components would change the essence of the skill
Progressive Part Practice
Used to avoid transfer problems due to high levels of interaction among task components Effective for any sequential action; e.g., tennis serve
Lead-up Activities and Drills

1.
Transfer to another target sporting activity

e.g., passing, shooting, dribbling, and faking drills for soccer Quickening, balancing, perceptual exercises, etc. e.g., perceptual motor training
2.
Improvement of basic abilities

44
Mental Rehearsal
The process associated with mentally rehearsing the performance of a skill in the absence of any overt physical movement Evidence has demonstrated that mental rehearsal generates positively transferable motor learning Involves constructing model situations and going through the motions of what you will do later Especially beneficial for injured athletes It is a supplement to physical practice
45
Designing Effective Practice
Conditions of Practice:
a) Blocked Practice - a given task is practiced on many consecutive trials before

setting about the next task
- enables the learners to correct specific problems and refine

their skills one at a time - important early in practice when correct habits should be learned
b) Random Practice - ordering of tasks is randomized in a way that tasks from

different classes are mixed throughout the practice period - random practice is very effective once a skill has become more developed
Massed Versus Distributed Practice

a)Massed Practice
-a schedule in which the amount of rest between practice trials is short relative to the trial length -eg. 5 sec of rest for a practice trial lasting 60 secs.
b)Distributed Practice
-practice that allows for more rest between trials relative to the trial length -the rest period may last as long as the trial itself Reducing the amount of rest between trials will also reduce the amount of time the body and central nervous system have to recover from physical and mental fatigue There is no single optimal practice-rest ratio for all learning tasks
47
Grouping for Practice

Designed to make learning suitable for everyone involved Should be based on the learners skill levels, rather than a subjective determination of their underlying abilities Other factors, such as maturity level, previous experience, and level of physical fitness need to be considered
Effects of Motivation on Learning
Until the learner has been motivated, effective learning is not likely to occur An instructor plays an important role in motivating his students (encouraging learners to set goals, providing excellent demonstrations, or using visual aids) Its a Fact !: She who is motivated makes more of an effort during practice, can practice for longer periods of time, and learns more in the end The Law of Effect: Organisms tend to repeat responses that are rewarded and to avoid responses that are not rewarded or punished

Motor Skills Learning and Acquisition Processes

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Motor Skills: Learning and Acquisition Processes

Sport Books Publisher

Developing Movement Intelligence

Developing Movement Intelligence

Sport Books Publisher

Following factors affect development of movement intelligence:

Starting the Learning Process at a Young Age

Providing Sufficient Learning Time

Sport Books Publisher

Being Taught By Qualified Instructors

The Use of Quality Equipment

Safe, appropriate, and well maintained

Effectiveness of teaching movement skills is directly related to the quality of equipment

Following the Right Progression

Sport Books Publisher

Stages of Learning a Skill

Sport Books Publisher

Three general stages of motor learning have been identified

Each stage consists of:

Cognitive or Acquisition Stage

Begins when task first introduced Learner cognitively determines:

Associative or Stabilization Stage

Autonomous or Application Stage

Performance: automatic and very proficient Attention demands:

Feedback for Skill Learning

Sport Books Publisher

Vision Audition Touch

Basketball Golf Tennis service ace Darts .

Lap times Distance jumped Height jumped Judges score .

Information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing an action

Knowledge of performance Arm extension when hitting the tennis ball

Sport Books Publisher

Extrinsic Feedback contd

Important when outcome is less obvious

Motivational Properties of Feedback

Sport Books Publisher

Feedback Can be a Crutch

Sport Books Publisher 22

Benefit: teacher can tailor feedback to respect individual differences

When in the Learning Process is Information Feedback Needed Most?

Cognitive stage Feedback is vital

Associative stage Faded, bandwidth, or summary feedback

Autonomous stage Feedback withdrawal

Sport Books Publisher

How Much Feedback is Necessary?

Sport Books Publisher

How Precise Should Feedback Be?

Descriptive (general) feedback

Prescriptive (precise) feedback

Precise feedback generates far better results

Sport Books Publisher

High Precise Feedback

Blocks of Learning Trials

What is the Best Timing for Information Feedback?

Sport Books Publisher 30

Transfer of Motor Learning

Sport Books Publisher

e.g., playing mini-golf before golf tournament

Factors Affecting Transfer

Positive Transfer Example

Negative Transfer Example

size and level of balance

Biomotor Demands e.g., sprint & long jump Psychological Demands