The Endocrine System

AP Chapter 45

 The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, is responsible for coordinating our responses. The endocrine system is a slower system and the nervous system is a faster response.

Chemical signals
Chemicals found in both systems and also as part of other signaling mechanisms bind to specific receptor proteins on or in target cells.

Secreted chemical signals include

Hormones produced by endocrine glands, travel through the blood stream to target organs ex insulin, estrogen Local regulators (a) paracrine signals act on neighboring cells, ex. cytokines, interferon, prostaglandins (b) autocrine signals act on secreting cells itself, ex cytokines

 Neurotransmitters - secreted by neurons at synapses ex- serotonin, nitric oxide (NO) Neurohormones secreted by neurosecretory cells, travel through the blood stream to target organs or synapses ex- epinephrine Pheromones released into the environment; between individuals ex insects marking trails, mating, etc.

Fig. 45-2

Blood vessel (a) Endocrine signaling

Response

Response

(b) Paracrine signaling

Response

(c) Autocrine signaling Synapse Neuron

Response (d) Synaptic signaling

Neurosecretory cell Blood vessel (e) Neuroendocrine signaling

Response

Chemical Classes of Hormones

Three major classes of molecules function as hormones in vertebrates:
Polypeptides (proteins and peptides) Amines derived from amino acids Steroid hormones

Fig. 45-3

Water-soluble

Lipid-soluble

0.8 nm

Polypeptide: Insulin

Steroid: Cortisol

Amine: Epinephrine

Amine: Thyroxine

 Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid hormones) pass easily through cell membranes, while water-soluble hormones (polypeptides and amines) do not The solubility of a hormone correlates with the location of receptors inside or on the surface of target cells

 Water-soluble hormones are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and bind to cell-surface receptors Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across cell membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins, and diffuse through the membrane of target cells

Fig. 45-5-1

Watersoluble hormone

Fat-soluble hormone

Signal receptor

Transport protein

TARGET CELL

Signal receptor

(a)

NUCLEUS

(b)

Fig. 45-5-2

Watersoluble hormone

Fat-soluble hormone

Signal receptor

Transport protein

TARGET CELL

OR

Signal receptor

Cytoplasmic response

Gene regulation Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation

(a)

NUCLEUS

(b)

Multiple Effects of Hormones

The same hormone may have different effects on target cells that have
Different receptors for the hormone Different signal transduction pathways Different proteins for carrying out the response due to different transcription factors they activate

A hormone can also have different effects in different species

Fig. 45-8-1

Same receptors but different intracellular proteins (not shown)

Epinephrine receptor Glycogen deposits

Epinephrine receptor

Glycogen breaks down and glucose is released.

Vessel dilates.

(a) Liver cell

(b) Skeletal muscle blood vessel

Fig. 45-8-2

Same receptors but different intracellular proteins (not shown) Different receptors Epinephrine receptor Glycogen deposits Epinephrine receptor Epinephrine receptor

Glycogen breaks down and glucose is released.

Vessel dilates.

Vessel constricts.

(a) Liver cell

(b) Skeletal muscle blood vessel

(c) Intestinal blood vessel

Negative feedback and antagonistic hormone pairs are common features of the endocrine system

Hormones are assembled into regulatory pathways A negative feedback loop inhibits a response by reducing the initial stimulus Negative feedback regulates many hormonal pathways involved in homeostasis

Fig. 45-11

Pathway Stimulus

Example Low pH in duodenum

S cells of duodenum secrete secretin ( ) Endocrine cell Blood vessel

Target cells

Pancreas

Response

Bicarbonate release

Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose an example of antagonistic hormone pairs

The pancreas has clusters of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans with alpha cells that produce glucagon and beta cells that produce insulin Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by
Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver Promoting fat storage

 Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by

Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose Remember: Glucagon Glucose ON!

Fig. 45-12-2

Body cells take up more glucose.

Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises.

Blood glucose level declines.

Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 mL)

Fig. 45-12-4

Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 mL)

Blood glucose level rises.

STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls.

Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon. Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose.

Glucagon

Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the bestknown endocrine disorder It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels

 Type I diabetes mellitus (insulindependent) is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulindependent) involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors

Fig. 45-10

Major endocrine glands:

Hypothalamus Pineal gland

Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands

Organs containing endocrine cells: Thymus

Heart

Adrenal glands

Liver Stomach

Testes

Pancreas Kidney Ovaries

Kidney
Small intestine

Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems in Vertebrates

The hypothalamus receives information from the nervous system and initiates responses through the endocrine system Attached to the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland composed of the posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary

 The posterior pituitary stores and secretes hormones that are made in the hypothalamus The anterior pituitary makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus

Fig. 45-14

Cerebrum Pineal gland Cerebellum Spinal cord

Thalamus
Hypothalamus Pituitary gland

Hypothalamus Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus secretes two hormones which are stored in the posterior pituitary. 1) oxytocin induces uterine contractions during birth and milk production

2) ADH which decreases urine volume

Fig. 45-15

Hypothalamus

Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus Posterior pituitary

Axon

Anterior pituitary

HORMONE

ADH

Oxytocin

TARGET

Kidney tubules

Mammary glands, uterine muscles

The anterior pituitary gland secretes releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones.

TSH thyroid stimulating FSH and LH stimulates gonads ACTH - stimulates adrenal cortex Prolactin milk production MSH stimulates production of melanocytes (skin pigments) GH growth hormone

Fig. 45-17

Tropic effects only: FSH LH TSH ACTH Nontropic effects only: Prolactin MSH Nontropic and tropic effects: GH Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones Posterior pituitary

Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus

Portal vessels

Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary Pituitary hormones

HORMONE

FSH and LH

TSH

ACTH

Prolactin

MSH

GH

TARGET

Testes or ovaries

Thyroid

Adrenal cortex

Mammary glands

Melanocytes

Liver, bones, other tissues

Tropic Hormones
A tropic hormone regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands The four strictly tropic hormones are
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Thyroid Gland
T3 and T4, regulates metabolism (needs dietary iodine to function properly goiter)
Calcitonin lowers calcium in blood deposition in bones and secretion into kidney filtrate

Parathyroid Gland
PTH parathormone raises calcium levels in blood from bones and reuptake in kidneys

Fig. 45-20-2

Active vitamin D

Increases Ca2+ uptake in intestines

Stimulates Ca2+ uptake in kidneys

PTH

Stimulates Ca2+ release from bones Blood Ca2+ level rises.

Parathyroid gland (behind thyroid)

STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca2+ level Homeostasis: Blood Ca2+ level (about 10 mg/100 mL)

Adrenal medulla
Epinephrine (adrenaline) raises metabolic rate, fight or flight Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) controls blood pressure

Adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids glucose from noncarb sources, such as muscles Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) induces kidneys to reabsorb water and salts Both of these deal with long-term stress

Fig. 45-21c

Adrenal cortex Adrenal gland Kidney (b) Long-term stress response

Effects of mineralocorticoids: 1. Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys 2. Increased blood volume and blood pressure

Effects of glucocorticoids:
1. Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose

2. Possible suppression of immune system

Testes
Androgens (testosterone) gender, male secondary sex characteristics

Ovaries
Estrogen maintenance of female reproductive system and development of secondary female characteristics Progesterone prepares uterus for child

Pineal Gland
Melatonin biological clock

Hormonal pathways work with the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to coordinate responses Ex in the gonads

GnRH (hypothalamus) affects FSH and LH (anterior pituitary) which affects estrogens and androgens (ovaries/testes)

Which endocrine gland?

Too little of my hormone and you will feel tired and sluggish and probably gain weight.

THYROID

A malfunction in this gland can result in a giant.

Anterior Pituitary

This gland prepares me for an emergency situation by increasing my heartrate.

Adrenal Glands

This gland is also used in the digestive system. It also comes into play when I eat lots of M and Ms!

PANCREAS

This gland is called the master gland because it secretes nine hormones many of which control other endocrine glands by feedback control.

Pituitary Gland

If this gland is not working properly, diabetes can result.

Pancreas

 If this gland is not working properly, your nerves and muscles will not function properly either due to calcium deficiency.

Parathyroid Gland

 These glands do not function properly in chromosomal mutations such as in Turners and Klinefelters syndrome.

Gonads

This gland makes me wake up in the morning and ready to go!

Pineal Gland