Lecture 5: Methodologies (Part 1)

Professor Mark Palmer Queens Management School Queens University Belfast

Lecture aim
to provide students with an outline of the process of data gathering from the preparation and organization stage to the actual carrying out of the research fieldwork.

Lecture Outcomes
To outline the importance of the methodological choice for the research topic To identify and explain the various suitable for research topics To outline the merits and demerits of various methodologies To gain an appreciate of how to execute various research methods

Learning outcomes (Continued)

To facilitate understanding in the different aspects and stages in the process of data collection. Preparing for the physical and mental tasks involved in preparing for and actually gathering the data To provide an opportunity for consideration of these issues in the context of chosen research requirements

Priming Exercise
Jot down how you might research your objectives. Do they involve primary data collection?
How might you research the objectives?

Research Design
Why this research design?
E.g. cohorts is a small numbers phenomenon

Respondents (in)appropriate? Units of analysis? Operational measurement (confounding?) Sparse reporting, scale validity Include design controls (e.g. firm size)

Recall Lordes (1984) famous line:

The masters tools can never dismantle the masters house. What does this mean (and for the selection of a methodology-in-practice?) Research design must address the research problem

Method is dependent on The Nature of the Problem: E.g. Investigating culture

Cultural pluralism
Cultural dominance Cultural entrenchment

Nature of the problem: Investigating marketing impact on financial markets

Share Price Analyst Notes (Buy/Sell) Investor Relations Investor Conferences Institutional relations Other venture capitalists

What is a research design?

Research Design Strategies

Access!

Context and situational versus crosssectional

Example of a Research Design

Adopted from Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), Greene et al. (1989), and Howe and14 Eisenhart (1990)

Example of a Research Design

Two Phases (i) Network analysis (i.e. issue crawler) (ii) Rhetorical strategies (IT artefacts and 28 indepth interviews). In stage one we employed a network sampling method to locate and map authoritative sites on the World Wide Web, which are involved issue debates concerning the case company under investigation Tesco.
To do this, we used a software tool called IssueCrawler (http://issuecrawler.net) to identify the authoritative actor network websites associated with the firms activism on the Web (this methodology has been used in political science projects, see for example http://www.govcom.org). Significantly, not only does it seek relevance as defined by the issue but it also made on the basis of network representation (Rogers, 2002; Rogers and Marres, 2002; Rogers and Ben-David, 2008). This sweep resulted in IssueCrawler yielding fifty one websites, using the prescribed URL. This allowed the researcher to produce an issue network of sufficient scope and transdiscursivity (Rogers and Marres, 2002).

Phase 1: Identifying Extra-institutional entrepreneurs

Phase 1: Extra-institutional entrepreneurs (cont.)

Phase II findings: Rhetorical Strategies Deployed

So how does that relate to methodologies?

Research Designs

Quantitative Methods

Quantitative Methods
A precise level of measurement The greater the range of analytical techniques Impact of data coding on subsequent analyses Existing measurement scales pretested items in for example the Handbook of Marketing Scales. Testing of hypotheses or predictions Relationships between variables
Exogenous dynamics Endogenous dynamics

Easy with analysis software to generate statistics from your data

Typical Quantitative Research

Quantitative Analysis Data Analysis and Interpretation Module (Dr Puthusserry)

Software tools to assist

SPSS

Stata
R Listeral

1) Experiments

Experimental

Limitations

2) Survey

Planning a survey (Gill and Johnson)

Planning a Survey (Gill and Johnson) Conceptualise and Structure the Research Problem a) consider the aims of research b) review the current literature c) assess the various resources known

Analytic Survey?

Descriptive Survey?

Identify the independent, dependent and other variables Eg relationship between accounting controls and business strategy

Identify the phenomena that you wish to describe eg what motivates employees in a particular context?

Determine the sampling strategy by defining the research problem And designing a means of accessing a (representative) sample. Is the data to be collected through one approach to respondents?

Interviewer administered Questionnaire/ Schedule

Respondent completed/ e-mail/postal questionnaire

..continued:
Alternatively the use of surveys to explore a substantive area, or Descriptive surveys Inductive approach Use of open-ended questions Merges the survey approach with styles of research which are more ethnographic Much survey design may begin with an unstructured investigation using overtly ethnographic methods Theory developed inductively to be tested later using a more structured questionnaire as a part of the main study

Consideration must be given to examining relationships between and among data:

Types of variable : nominal or categorical, ordinal interval/ratio dichotomous Independent (X) and dependent (Y) variables Causality Mediation Moderation Univariate, bivariate or multi-variate analysis Trends correlation

Selecting the most appropriate sampling technique

If the population is small, there is no requirement to sample Probability or representative sampling: mostly
used in survey based strategies when trying to estimate the characteristics of the population

Non-probability or judgemental sampling:

impossible to make statistical inferences about the population, but can often generalise. Mostly used when adopting a case study strategy eg

Approach to sampling
For a positivistic study, sampling is a fundamental element For a social contructionist study, sampling is less important. You may well only gather data from one person, such as the chairman of the company

Overview of sampling techniques

sampling probability non-probability

Simple random

Stratified random

quota

snowball

Conven -ience

cluster systematic

purposive

Selfselection

Extreme to typical case Multistage

Probability sampling
Seeking a REPRESENTATIVE sample Select the sampling frame Decide on a suitable sample size Statistical inference and margin of error

Main techniques: Simple random Systematic Stratified random Cluster Multi-stage

Non-probability sampling (or non-random sampling)

Quota sampling- seeks to represent the population as a
whole and sample size reflects probability sampling.

Purposive sampling -where you use your judgement Snowball sampling-technique used when it is difficult to gain
access to individuals

Convenience and Self- selection sampling

techniques- where sample size is ambiguous as there are no rules

Main decisions when using questionnaires

Sample size Type of questions Wording of intelligible and unambiguous questions Importance of pilot testing Instructions and design of questionnaire Any accompanying letter Method of distribution and return Tests for reliability and validity Collation and analysis of data Any action for non-response

Importance of pilot testing

To avert problems in respondents answering the questions and to ensure there will be no problems in recording the data. To assess the validity of the questions asked And the likely reliability of the data To check that the coding system works Reassurance on the content validity. Ie the data answers the research questions/objective The pilot should involve a subset of the sample to be included. Minimum number 10 respondents

Methods of Distribution
Self-administered
Internet-mediated (Surveymonkey) etc Postal Delivery and collection

Interviewer-administered
Telephone Structured interview

Advantages
On-line questionnaire Large geog area Easy to administer Can use internet tools

Disadvantages
Only include IT literate respondents Avoid complex questions Low/moderate response rate Time consuming Expensive

Delivery and collection

Similar advantages to postal Collection increases response rate Wide geog area Sample selection easy Respondents have own time Anonymity preserved Token incentives increase responses

Postal

Low response rates Self selection can lead to bias Clarification of questions not provided Non-respondents need chasing Expensive

Deciding what data needs to be collected

Questionnaire demands a precise request for data, and only one chance to receive the correct information For descriptive research, essential to understand the organisations, countries and cultures in which the research is being undertaken For explanatory research to test a theory or theories, must be clear about the relationships Variable can be dependent or independent Or extraneous- ie it might also cause changes in dependent variables

Eg Research question= To establish existing employees attitudes towards the introduction of a no-smoking policy in the workplace.
Investigative questions
How do employees feel about the introduction. (attitude) Do employees wish to see a smoking room set aside for smokers? Do employees views differ according to Age? Whether a smoker?

Variables required
Attitude of employee as to their rights Attitude of employee to such a provision

Detail in which data measured

Feel.. No strong views to very strong views against Feel.. From to very strongly that it should be provided to very strongly that it should not To nearest 5years 18-70 Non-Smoker, smokes little, smokes lot>20 perday (included above) Male/ Female Senior management,supervisory,other

Age of employee Smoker

How representative are the responses?

Age of employee Gender Job/Role

Example of coding: Saunders et al (2009) Accountants as sources of business advice for small firms: questionnaire administered by telephone from research by
Gooderham in Norway

Variable
Degree to which a small firm uses its authorised accountant as business advisor Long-term relationship with accountant Perceived competence of accountant in statutory accounting services Firm size (No. of employees) Degree of interest in authorised accountants attempts to sell them advisory services Upper hourly billing rate the firm is willing to pay for business advisory services Degree of competition

Codes
Scale from 1 to 6 1=not at all, 6=to a very large degree 1=changed accountant within last 5 years 2=have not changed accountant within last 5 years Scale from 1 to 6 1=very limited competence 6=very high competence 1=1employee,3=2-4 employees, 7=5-9 employees, 15=10-20 employees Scale from 1 to 6 1=very little interest 6=very large interest 1=do not know or under NKr 300, 2= NKr300-450,3=NKr451-650,4=NKr651ormore Scale from 1 to 6 1=negligible,6=very tough

Steps in the logic of the deductive method

1/ Deducing a hypothesis ( a testable proposition between two or more events or concepts) from the theory. (H1,..H2) 2/ Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms (indicate exactly how the variables are to be measured) Show how the variables relate. 3/ Test the operational hypothesis (e.g. experiment)

Steps in the logic of the deductive method

4/ Examine the specific outcome of the inquiry. a / Predicted outcome (from hypothesis) supports the theory b / Contrary outcome (to hypothesis) contradicts the theory, or fails to support the theory, or may be explained by poor research design.

Steps in the logic of the deductive method

5/ If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of its findings. Verify the revised theory by going back to stage 1/ and repeat the cycle.

Deduction: testing theory

X does occur theory supported

If theory is true

X will occur

Test X

X does not occur theory challenged

A hypothesis states that there is a relationship between two concepts and specifies the direction of that relationship.

Age

Gross annual income

Key terms explained The elements in the boxes are called concepts. The lines between the boxes are called relationships. Theories are composed of concepts linked by relationships.

Variables

A positive sign shows a positive relationship, e.g. (hours of study rises, exam grades rise)

A negative sign shows a negative relationship, e.g. (Price of houses rises, demand falls)

Variables

A variable is a characteristic which has more than one category or value. e.g. Age The effect is called a dependent variable (Y); The assumed cause is called an independent variable (X) An intervening variable (Z) is the means by which X affects Y..

Deduction: testing theory

Research approaches

You need to be able to operationalise variables i.e. to make them measurable and quantifiable. e.g Professionalism product quality or Job satisfaction cannot be measured directly.

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Deduction: testing theory

There can be more than one indicator or variable or value: CONCEPTS: Poverty INDICATORS: poor living conditions VARIABLES: provision of sanitary facilities VALUES: Numbers of people per bathroom, WC .

Example 1

Example 2

Quantitative Design

Testable Model

Hypotheses
Hypothesis Exogenous variable Endogenous variable

H1a H1b H2a H2b H3 H4

Productive tension Productive tension Unproductive Tension Unproductive Tension Productive tension Unproductive Tension

Functional conflict Dysfunctional conflict Functional conflict Dysfunctional conflict Interorganizational performance Interorganizational performance

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Standard quantitative procedures

Before analysing the data, cleaning the data (e.g. outliers, missing data) Descriptive statistics (e.g. mean, distribution, standard deviation) T-Tests, correlation, regressions, strength of associations (R2)

Overview of initial analysis

Example of outputs

Example of outputs

Example of Listeral- Quantitative Data Analysis

The standardized direct relations between PT, UT and FC, DC, PER

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Examples of Quantitative Fit Statistics

Model Goodness of Fit Results
The X2 p value is significant with X2 = 316.122 and df = 113. However, the X2/df ratio is 2.798, which is below 3:1 ration suggested by Carmines and McIver (1981) and (Schumacker and Lomax, 2004).

Results
Parameter FC <--- PT DC <--- UT PER <--- PT PER <--- UT PER <--- ALIAGEO DC <--- PT FC <--- UT PER <--- MRKSHRL FC <--- ALIAGEO DC <--- ALIAGEO Estimate .288 -.270 -.283 -.283 -.076 .210 .073 .052 -.084 .008 Lower .117 -.490 -.480 -.549 -.231 -.019 -.118 -.069 -.209 -.132 Upper .455 -.059 -.091 -.055 .132 .422 .265 .250 .046 .161 P .009 .029 .013 .028 .620 .132 .578 .444 .252 .840

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Summary of Quantitative Results

Hypothesis H1a H1b H2a H2b H3 H4

Relationship PT FC PT DC UT DC UT FC PT PER UT PER Accepted

Result

Insignificant Rejected Insignificant Rejected Accepted

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Additional Post-hoc Analyses

Phase I: Quantitative Results

Interaction between PT and UT: combined effect of tension types have significant impacts on functional conflict (FC) (-.188, =.019, significant at p<.05, and R2=.088). Quadratic relations (PT2 and UT2): the quadratic effect of PT has a positive impact on FC (.204, =.033, significant at p<.05, and R2=.088). Interactions and quadratic relations: Conduct further tests to have a full understanding of both the quadratic effects and the interactions.

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Results
Research objectives, theory and findings must be congruent? Findings overly descriptive? Findings overly narrow additional robust tests for different types of relationships?

Results?

Exercise
Sketch out your research design for data collection. Are you exploring or examining? If you are examining, jot down the sources of your measures for your research
What are you control measures?

If you are exploring, jot down the boundary conditions of your research?

Reflection Questions
How will the proposed methodology achieve research objectives What other research methodologies might be employed? Why were these methodologies rejected? How do you go about assembling the data collected during your fieldwork? How to recognise any gaps in the data collection? What is the overall object when carrying out data analysis?

Reflection Questions
How do you consider the practical and operational aspects of gathering data for your dissertation and prepare an outline. How can you anticipate and plan for the possible barriers to the completion of your fieldwork? What do you do when co-operation is not forthcoming from key respondents?

References
Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (2010) Research Methods for Managers, London, Paul Chapman Collis, J and Hussey, R. (2009) Business Research a practical guide for undergraduates and postgraduate students, London, Macmillian Kahn, R. and Cannell, C. (1957) The dynamics of interviewing, New York, Wiley Saunders M. et al (2009) Research Methods for Business Students, Harlow, Prentice Hall Grant, A. M., & Wall, T. D. 2009. The neglected science and art of quasi-experimentation: Why-to, when-to, and how-to advice for organizational researchers. Organizational Research Methods, 12: 653-686.

References
Bell J (1999) Doing your research project (3rd Edn) Buckingham:Oxford Univ Press Bryman A and Bell E (2003) Business Research Methods New York:Oxford Univ Press Easterby-Smith M et al(2002) Management Research: An Introduction London:Sage Publications Robson C.(2002) Real World Research (2nd Edn) Oxford:Blackwell Saunders M. et al (2009) Research Methods for Business Students, (Edn 4) Harlow, Prentice Hall Sekaran V (2000) Research Methods for Business: A skills building approach (3rd Edn) New York:Wiley Ticehurst GW and Veal AJ (2000) Business Research methods: a managerial approach NSW: Pearson Education