SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY

Dept. of Geological Engineering

GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY

SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY IN PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

BY SARJU WINARDI DEPT. OF GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY

Compiled by Sarju Winardi

CONTENTS

CORE ANALYSIS FLOW CHART GEOLOGICAL CORE DESCRIPTION PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS LABORATORY MEASUREMENT CORE-LOG COMPARISONS GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 1. FACIES & DEP ENVIRONMENT 2. STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCES
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CORE ANALYSIS FLOW CHART

OBJECTIVES FOR CORING Petrology Sedimentology Fracture studies Porosity and permeability (Storage and flow capacity) Biostratigraphy Geochemistry Establishing presence of hydrocarbons Establishing reserves Log correlation

OBJECTIVES FOR CORING

Confirm presence of economic basement Establish likely oil recovery and residual oil saturation. Examine reservoir suitability for enhanced oil recovery. Examine reservoir rock for type and extend of likely formation damage (permeability reduction or skin) mechanism.
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CORING METHOD

The most common methods :

Conventional Sidewall (percussion or drilled)

Unconsolidated conventional core (sleeved) :

Rubber sleeve Fiberglass Plastic sleeve Aluminium Sleeve

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CORING FLUIDS

CORE PRESERVATION

Water based :

Fresh water Salt water Oil emulsion Lease crude Diesel Mineral oil

Oil based :

Plastic lay-flat tubing Saran wrap, aluminium foil, core seal Submerging under deaerated water Submerging under nonoxidised crude or mineral oil Freezing in dry ice
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PRELIMINARY CORE CHARACTERIZATION

1. Total Gamma Ray Gamma ray measurement at the surface of the core

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PRELIMINARY CORE CHARACTERIZATION 2. Core SPECTRAL GAMMA to detect gamma radiaton from K, U, Th

Application : - depth matching - shale indicator - fracture or source rock detection as shown by U activity
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PRELIMINARY CORE CHARACTERIZATION

3. X-RAY Computerized Tomography (CT Scanning) - scan core encased in a sleeve - detect of radial fractures - detect of dense streraks - observation of flow tests
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PRELIMINARY CORE CHARACTERIZATION

4. CORE PHOTOGRAPHY & IMAGING - Determination of net selected - Determination of sample quality - Evaluation of mud filtrate invasion into a core - Aid in geological studies
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GEOLOGICAL CORE DESCRIPTION

1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

6.
7. 8.

Lithology Rock colour Mineralogy Texture Sedimentary structures Visible porosity type Fracture definiton Presence or absence of oil

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GEOLOGICAL CORE DESCRIPTION

9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Formation thickness (tops & bottom) Facies & depositional environment Fossils content Stratigraphic sequences Formation age Paleomagnetism
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LITHOLOGY

1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

SHALE SANDSTONE CONGLOMERATES BRECCIAS CARBONATE ROCKS VOLCANIC ROCKS

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LITHOLOGY
1.

SHALE
Sedimentary rock formed by induration of a clay, silty clay, or silty clay loam deposit and having the tendency to split into thin layers, i.e., fissility .

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2. SANDSTONE Sedimentary rock containing dominantly sand-size clastic particles

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3. CONGLOMERATES A coarse-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of rounded to subangular rock fragments larger than 2 mm, commonly with a matrix of sand and finer material; cements include silica, calcium carbonate, and iron oxides. The

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4. BRECCIAS
A coarse-grained, clastic rock composed of angular rock fragments (larger than 2 mm) commonly bonded by a mineral cement in a finer-grained matrix of varying composition and origin. The consolidated equivalent of rubble.
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5. CARBONATE ROCKS

a. LIMESTONE A sedimentary rock consisting chiefly (more than 50 percent) of calcium carbonate, primarily in the form of calcite. Limestones are usually formed by a combination of organic and inorganic processes and include chemical and clastic (soluble and insoluble) constituents;

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b. DOLOSTONE A carbonate sedimentary rock consisting chiefly (more than 50 percent by weight or by areal percentages under the microscope) of the mineral dolomite
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6. VOLCANIC ROCKS

a. PYROCLASTICS

Pertaining to fragmental materials produced by usually explosive, aerial ejection of clastic particles from a volcanic vent. Such materials may accumulate on land or under water

b. LAVA

A solidified body of rock formed from the lateral, surficial outpouring of molten lava from a vent or fissure, often lobate in form.

c. TUFF

A generic term for any consolidated or cemented deposit that is > 50 percent volcanic ash (< 2 mm); various types of tuff can be recognized based on composition: acidic tuff is predominantly composed of acidic particles; basic tuff is predominantly composed of 29 basic particles.

MINERALOGY
1. SHALE

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MINERALOGY
2. SANDSTONE

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MINERALOGY
3. CARBONATE ROCKS

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TEXTURE
1. NON-CLASTICS TEXTURE a. Amorph b. Oolithics c. Pisolhitics d. Sacharoidal e. Crystalin
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TEXTURE
2. CLASTICS TEXTURES a. Grain size b. Grain shape c. Sortation d. Fabrics

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a. Grain size

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b. Grain shape

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c. Sortation

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d. Fabrics

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3. CARBONATE TEXTURES/STRUCTURES

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SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

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STRATIFICATION

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CROSS-STRATIFICATION

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HUMMOCKY CROSS-STRATIFICATION

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RIPPLES

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GROOVE CASTS

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FLUTE CASTS

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LOAD CASTS & FLAME

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MUD CRACKS

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SLUMP/CONVOLUTE

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DEWATERING

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POROSITY TYPE

INTERGRANULAR INTRAGRANULAR INTERCRYSTALLINE VUGULAR/MOLDIC FRACTURE MICROPOROSITY

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FRACTURE DEFINITON

DEPTH & OCCURRENCE WIDTH & LENGTH DIP ANGLE & AZIMUTH MINERALIZATION STAINNING

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FOSSILS CONTENT

TYPES OF FOSSILS BATHIMETRY AGE OF FOSSILS

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PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS INCLUDE
1. COMPOSITION 2. TEXTURE 3. FRAMEWORK GRAINS 4. CEMENT 5. MATRIX 6. POROSITY 7. DIAGENESIS
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Quartz in sandstone

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Feldspart in sandstone

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Rock fragment in sandstone

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Other detrital in sandstone (heavy minerals)

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Sandstone, Potsdam Formation, St. Lawrence County, New York Crossed polarizers with gypsum plate

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OOLITIC SANDSTONE Whirlpool Formation Monroe County, New York

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RECYCLED SANDSTONE Potsdam Formation Washington County, New York

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FOSSILS IN MUD Becraft Limestone Greene County, New York

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Calcite
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characteristic cleavage in calcite

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secondary calcite
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Dolomitic sandstone
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LABORATORY MEASUREMENT

POROSITY PERMEABILITY WATER SATURATION WETTABILITY CAPILLARY PRESSURE OIL & CONDENSATE ANALYSIS, etc.

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POROSITY

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POROSIMETER

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PERMEABILITY

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A) Sandstone matrix permeability anisotropy. B) Fracture permeability anisotropy (Keelan and Marschall, 1989).
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Permeability and porosity trends for various rock types (Keelan and Marschall, 1989)
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WATER SATURATION

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WETTABILITY

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CAPILLARY PRESSURE

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FACIES & DEP ENVIRONMENT

GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION

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Offshore and transitional zone

General Environmental Setting: Marine offshore to transitional zone Rock Description: Fine grained sandstone and mudstone. Bioturbation and compaction. May locally contain gas-disrupted bedding. Depositional Environment Represented: Shoreface to shallow offshore. Other envi where rock type is typically found: Any moderate to low energy environment including lakes, lagoons and shallow marine environments.

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Offshore and transitional zone

General Environmental Setting: Marine offshore transitional zone Rock Description: Parallel bedded sandstone and mudstone (base). Because the mudstone and sandstone beds are parallel it is likely that the beds were close to horizontal at deposition. Thus the apparent dip of the beds in the core is a result of the beds not being drilled perpendicular Depositional Environment Represented: Shallow offshore Other env where rock type is typically found: Not found in other environments
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Beach
General Environmental Setting: Marine shoreface - beach Rock Description: Parallel bedded-rippled sandstone. Note horizontal burrow near bottom (probably Paleophycus) Depositional Environment Represented: Upper shoreface/beach Other environments where rock type is typically found: Paleophycus burrows only found in marine environments. Marine shoals, washovers, tidal deltas.
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Beach
General Environmental Setting: Marine shoreface - beach Rock Description: Bioturbated sandstone. Original rock-interbedded clean sandstone and mudstone. Depositional Environment Represented: Foreshore to offshore Other environments where rock type is typically found: Interbedded clean sandstone and shale typical of lower foreshore to offshore environments or tidal areas where periodic high current velocities occur. Vertical burrows typical of transitional marine environments where filter feeders are dominant.
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Braided River
General Environmental Setting: Non marine: fluvial Rock Description: Ripple cross-bedded sandstone (only lee side of ripple preserved) Depositional Environment Represented: Channel Other environments where rock type is typically found: Any moderate energy environment in which migrating ripples occur but most commonly preserved in tidal and non-marine facies.
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Braided River
General Environmental Setting: Non marine: fluvial Rock Description: Conglomerate Depositional Environment Represented: Braided channel Other environments where rock type is typically found: Such coarse conglomerates are restricted to very high energy channels. In mass flow deposits the degree of rounding of clasts evident in this sample will not occur.

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FLUVIAL-CHANNEL

General Environmental Setting: Non marine: fluvial Rock Description: Granular sandstone Depositional Environment Represented: Channel Other environments where rock type is typically found: Clean well sorted granular sandstones also common in high energy beach and bar facies.

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FLUVIAL-CHANNEL

General Environmental Setting: Non marine: fluvial Rock Description: Cross-bedded sandstone Depositional Environment Represented: Channel Other environments where rock type is typically found: High energy environments where migrating dunes of megaripples occur (foreshore, aeolian, channel).

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OVERBANK
General Environmental Setting: Nonmarine - overbank Rock Description: Horizontal-ripple cross-laminated sandstone with mudstone partings. Only lee side of ripples preserved Depositional Environment Represented: Overbank deposit (levee or splay). Other environments where rock type is typically found: Not found in other environments

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General Environmental Setting: Nonmarine - overbank Rock Description: Convolute (soft-sediment structures) and horizontal bedded sandstone. Note the syndepositional fault near the base Depositional Environment Represented: Channel of proximal crevasse-splay Other environments where rock type is typically found: Any moderate to high energy facies characterized by rapid deposition.

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Wave Dominated Delta

General Environmental Setting: Marine shoreface - beach Rock Description: Cross-bedded sandstone Depositional Environment Represented: Upper shoreface or distributary channel Other environments where rock type is typically found: Moderate to high current velocity areas such as marine shoals, fluvial and tidal point bars, channel bottoms, distributary mouth bars, tidal inlets, tidal deltas and shelf sand ridges.
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General Environmental Setting: Marine and transitional marine to tidal flat Rock Description: Ripple cross-bedded and convolute-bedded sandstone interbedded with mudstone Depositional Environment Represented: Tidal flat to shallow subtidal Other environments where rock type is typically found: Areas of alternating high (sand deposition) and low energy (mud deposition) such as splays or some subtidal areas influenced by storms.

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Shoreface
General Environmental Setting: Marine offshore transitional zone Rock Description: Bioturbated sandstone. Burrows are similar to Paleophycus. Depositional Environment Represented: Shoreface - moderate energy environment. The presence of alternating laminae of mud and sand indicate periods of low and high energy deposition. Other environments where rock type is typically found: Not found in other environments
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General Environmental Setting: Marine offshore transitional zone Rock Description: Horizontal bedded and bioturbated sandstone. Burrows are similar to Paleophycus Depositional Environment Represented: Shoreface - moderate energy environment. Presence of laminae of mudstone indicate periods of low energy Other environments where rock type is typically found: Any moderate energy environment but with burrows is typical of lower foreshore to shallow offshore facies.

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Tidal Flat
General Environmental Setting: Marine and transitional marine to tidal flat Rock Description: Parallel bedded sandstone with large vertical to 'U' shaped burrows (probably Diplocrateron or Rhizocorallum). Parallel bedding defined by thin laminae of carbonaceous material and reddish brown siderite pellets Depositional Environment Represented: Marine shoal/shoreface. Other environments where rock type is typically found: Not found in other environments
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General Environmental Setting: Marine and transitional marine to tidal flat Rock Description: Lenticular and flaser bedding: sandstone and mudstone Depositional Environment Represented: Typical of tidal flats Other environments where rock type is typically found: flaser and lenticular bedding indicate both sand and mud are available and that periods of at least moderate current activity (sand deposition) alternate with periods of quiescence (mud deposition). These conditions are characteristic of subtidal and intertidal areas.
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