Nonlinear Elasticity

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Nonlinear Elasticity
Outline
Some basics of nonlinear elasticity
Nonlinear elasticity of biopolymer
networks
Nematic elastomers
What is Elasticity
Description of distortions of rigid bodies
and the energy, forces, and fluctuations
arising from these distortions.
Describes mechanics of extended
bodies from the macroscopic to the
microscopic, from bridges to the
cytoskeleton.
Classical Lagrangian Description
Reference material in D
dimensions described by
a continuum of mass
points x. Neighbors of
points do not change
under distortion
Material distorted to new
positions R(x)
( ) ( ) = + R x x u x
i
i i i
R
x
a a a
a
d h
L = = +
i i
u
a a
h =
Cauchy deformation tensor
x
'
x
( ) R x
( )
'
R x
Linear and Nonlinear Elasticity
Linear: Small deformations A near 1
Nonlinear: Large deformations A >>1
Why nonlinear?
Systems can undergo large deformations rubbers,
polymer networks ,
Non-linear theory needed to understand properties of
statically strained materials
Non-linearities can renormalize nature of elasticity
Elegant an complex theory of interest in its own right
Why now:
New interest in biological materials under large strain
Liquid crystal elastomers exotic nonlinear behavior
Old subject but difficult to penetrate worth a fresh look
Deformations and Strain
Complete information about shape of body in R(x)= x +u(x);
u= const. translation no energy.
No energy cost unless u(x) varies in space.
For slow variations, use the Cauchy deformation tensor
i i i i i
u
a a a a a
d d h L = + = +
3 3
det
det 1 :
d R d x = L
L =
%
%
No volume change
1/ 2
1/ 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
-
-

L

L = L

L

%
Volume preserving stretch along z-axis
A
1/ 2
A
Simple shear strain
1
0 1
L

L =

%
1 0
1

L =

L

%
Constant Volume, but note
stretching of sides
originally along x or y.
Rotate
Not equivalent to
Note: A is not symmetric
Pure Shear
2
2
1
1

+ L L

L =

L + L

%
Pure shear: symmetric deformation tensor with unit
determinant equivalent to stretch along 45 deg.
Pure shear as stretch
1 1
1
1 1
2
x x x
U
y y
y
'
| |
| |
| | | |
=
|
|
| |
|
|
'
\ . \ .
\ .
\ .
j
i i
i
j
T
ij j
x
R
R R
x R x x
U U
|
o
|
o
o
| |o
'
c
'
c
c c
A = =
' '
c c c c
'
= A
2
2
1 0
0 1
T
U U
'
A = A
| |
+ A + A
|
=
|
+ A A
\ .
Pure to simple shear
2
t an
1
u
A
=
+ A
2 2
2 1
2
/
2
2
1 2 2 1 2
0 (1
1 cos sin
sin
2
1
)
cos
u u
u u
| |
+ A A
|
|
A + A
\
A =
| |
+ A A + A
|
=
|
+ A
\
| |
|
|
\ .
.
.
Cauchy Saint-Venant Strain
( )
1 1
2 2
1
2
( ) ( )
T T
k k
u
u u u u u
a a a a
ab b b
d h h = L L - +
= + +
% % % %
% %
2 2
2 dR dx u dx dx
a
ab b
- =
i
i i i
R
x
a a a
a
d h
L = = +
u
o|
is invariant under rotations
in the target space but
transforms as a tensor under
rotations in the reference
space. It contains no
information about orientation
of object.
R=Reference space
T=Target space
Symmetric!
Elastic energy
The elastic energy should be invariant under rigid rotations
in the target space: if is a function of u
o|.
1
2
1
2
( )
[ ]
D
D
F d xf u
d x K u u u
o|
o|o o| o o| o|
o
=
= +
}
}
This energy is automatically invariant under rotations in
target space. It must also be invariant under the point-
group operations of the reference space. These place
constraints on the form of the elastic constants.
Note there can be a linear stress-like term. This can
be removed (except for transverse random components)
by redefinition of the reference space
Elastic modulus tensor
K
o|_o
is the elastic constant or elastic modulus tensor.
It has inherent symmetry and symmetries of the
reference space.

K K K K
o|o oo| |oo o|o
= = =
( ) K
o
o|o o| o |o oo |o
o o o o o o = + +
Isotropic system
1 2
1
2
3 4
1
4
5
( )
( )
( )
T T
T T T T T T
T T T T
K C n n n n C n n n n
C C
C n n n n n n n n
o o
o|o | o | o o | o|
o
o| o |o oo |
o o o
|o o | | o | oo
o o
o o o o o o
o o o o
= + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
Uniaxial (n = unit vector along uniaxial direction)
Isotropic and Uniaxial Solid
( )
1
1
2 2
1
2
2
3 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Tr Tr Tr
f f f U V
f f u f V uV
C u D Bu u u
aa
m
-
-
= L = L
= =
= + + - % % %
Invariant under
( ) U (V ) R x R x
Isotropic: free energy density f has
two harmonic elastic constants
Uniaxial: five harmonic elastic constants
Invariant under
uni
( ) U (V ) R x R x
2 2
1 1
2 2 1 2 3
2 2
4 5
;
( , )
zz zz
z
z
f C u C u u C u
C u C u
x
nn nn
nt n
a n
= + +
+ +
= x x
= shear modulus;
B = bulk modulus
Force and stress I
ext D D
i i i i
F d x f u d x u
o
o
o = = c
} }
external force density vector in target space. The
stress tensor o
io
is mixed. This is the engineering or 1
st

Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor = force per area of
reference space. It is not necessarily symmetric!
i i
f
o
o
o = c
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
D
i i
i i
u
F f
d x f
u u u
x
x x x
ab
a
a
ab
d
d
s
d d

- = = = -
1
2
( )
( ) ( )
( )
i i
i
u
u
x
x x
x
ab
a
a b b
d
d
d

= L + L -
II
i i i
f
u
a b b ba
ba
s s
= L L
o
o|
II
is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor - symmetric

Note: In a linearized theory, o
io
= o
io
II
Cauchy stress
The Cauchy stress is the familiar force per unit area in the
target space. It is a symmetric tensor in the target space.
d I d C
i i ij j i
d x u d R u
a
a
s s =

i
i
R
det
d d
d R d x = L
%
i
i i
i
R
x x R
a
a
a a

= = = L

1 1
det det
C I T II T
ij i j i j a a a a ab
s s s = L = L L
L L
% %
1
det
C II T
s s = L L
L % %% %
%
Symmetric as required
Coupling to other fields
We are often interested in the coupling of target-space vectors
like an electric field or the nematic director to elastic strain.
How is this done? The strain tensor u
o|
is a scalar in the
target space, and it can only couple to target-space scalars,
not vectors.
Answer lies in the polar decomposition theorem
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
( ) ( )
T T
M
-
L = L L L L L Q
% %% % % % %%
1/ 2
( 2 );
T
M u M d
-
= L L = + Q = L
% % % % % % %%
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1
( ) ( )
T T T T T
OO M M M M d
- - - - -
= L L = L L = L L L L =
%% %% %% %% % % %% % % %
M u
O
% %
%
is symmetric and depends on only.
is an orthogonal, unimodular rotation matrix
Target-reference conversion
i
O
E E
a
%
%
The rotation matrix converts target-space
vectors to reference-space vectors and vice-versa
;
T
i i i i
E O E E O E
a a
a a
= =
% %
.
i i a a
d L O =
%
If is symmetric,
1
2
( )
i i i i
i i k k
O u u
a a a a
a a
d
d e
+ -
- W
To linear order in u, O
io
has a term proportional to the
antisymmetric part of the strain matrix.
Strain and Rotation
Simple Shear
Symmetric
shear
Rotation
n
L
%is a reference space vector; it is equal to the
target space vector that is obtained when is
symmetric
Sample couplings
1/ 2 1/ 2
1
2
1
2
( ) ( )( )
( )
T
i i j ij i j j
T T T T T
T
u E E E O u O E v E E
OuO
v
a
a ab b ab b
d
d
- -
=
= L L L L L - L L L
= LL - =
% %
%%% %% % % % % % % %
%% % %
Coupling of electric field to strain
( )
T
i j ij
f f u gE E v =
Free energy no longer depends on the strain u
o|
only.
The electric field defines a direction in the target
space as it should
0
i i
i i
x
R R
x x x
b
a b ba
a a
b
L = = = L L

i i i o o o
o q
' '
A = +
Energy depends on
both symmetric and
anti-symmetric parts
of q
Biopolymer Networks
cortical actin gel neurofilament network
Characteristics of Networks
Off Lattice
Complex links, semi-flexible rather than
random-walk polymers
Locally randomly inhomogeneous and
anisotropic but globally homogeneous
and isotropic
Complex frequency-dependent rheology
Striking non-linear elasticity
Goals
Strain Hardening (more resistance to
deformation with increasing strain)
physiological importance
Formalisms for treating nonlinear
elasticity of random lattices
Affine approximation
Non-affine
Different Networks
10
100
1000
0.01 0.1 1
Strain stiffening of semiflexible biopolymer networks
G

o
r

G
'
p
l
a
t
(
P
a
)
Strain
NF
Vimentin
Collagen
Actin
Fibrin
polyacrylamide
Max strain
~.25 except for
vimentin and
NF
Max stretch:
L(A)/L~1.13
at 45 deg to
normal
Semi-microscopic models
Random or periodic
crosslinked network: Elastic
energy resides in bonds
(links or strands)
connecting nodes
R
b
= separation of nodes in bond b
V
b
(| R
b
|) = free energy of bond b
0
0
( ) ( )
( )
b b
b
b
F V N V
F
f n V
V
R
R
R R
R = f
= =
=
n
b
= Number of
bonds per unit
volume of
reference lattice
Affine Transformations
Reference network:
Positions R
0
Strained target network:
R
i
=A
ij
R
0j
0
0
( )
b
F
f n V
V
R
R = = L
%
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2
0 1/ 2 0
( ) (1 2 )
( ) :
| | | (1 2 ) |
T
T
b b
O O u
O
u R R
-
L = L L = +
= L L L
L = +
% %% % % %
% %% %
% %
Orthogonal
Depends only on u
ij
Example: Rubber
2 2
0
R Nb =
2
2
3
( )
2
R
V R T
Nb
=
0
2 0 0
3 1
( ) Tr
2 2
T T
b b R
R
T
F n V Tn
Nb
R R R = L = L L = L L
% % % % %
2
0 0
1
3
i j ij
R R Nb d =
Purely entropic force
Average is over the end-to-end separation in a
random walk: random direction, Gaussian magnitude
2
2 2
3 3
( ) exp
2 2
R
P R
Nb Nb p

= -

Rubber : Incompressible Stretch
1 1
Tr Tr(1 2 )
2 2
T
b b
f Tn Tn u f = L L = +
% % %
Unstable: nonentropic forces between atoms needed to
stabilize; Simply impose incompressibility constraint.
1/ 2
1/ 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
-
-

L

= L

L

L
2
1 2
2
b
f n T = f

= L +

L
Rubber: stress -strain
( )
( )
R R
z
R
R
A L f
f
f V f A
L L
f
f

= = =
L L
2
1
e
z
R
f f
nT
A
f
s

= = = L -

L L
2
1
z
f f
nT
A
s

= = L = L -

L L
Engineering stress
Physical Stress
A
R
= area in
reference space
A = A
R
/A = Area in
target space
2
1
(1 ) ~ 3
1
nT
Y nT
s
g
g g g

= = + -

+
Y=Youngs modulus
General Case
e ref
1 ref
det
ij j ij j
i ji j
dS dS
dS dS
s s
-
=
= L L
( )
( )
dV R
R
dR
t =
Engineering
stress: not
symmetric
Physical
Cauchy Stress:
Symmetric
Central force
0
e
0
0 0
0
0
0 0 0 0
0
( )
'( )
| |
( )
( ) ( )
| |
i
ij j
ij
i
i j j
f
n V R
n R n R
R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
s
t t
L
= = L
L L
L
= L = L
L
%
%
%
%
% %
%
0
0
0 0
0
( )
det | |
ij ik k jl l
n
R R
R
R
R
t
s
L
= L L
L L
%
% %
Semi-flexible Stretchable Link
2
2 2
1
| | ( 1)
2
d
H ds v K v
ds
k t
^
^

= + + -
t
t
( ) ( )
d
v s s
ds
=
R
t
2
| ( ) | 1; ( ) ( ( ), 1 | ( ) | ) s s s s
^ ^
= = - t t t t
d
v
ds
=
R
[ ]
0
0
0
2
1
2
0
,
1 | |
L
z
L
dR
R v L ds
ds
ds v
^
=

-

t
t
t = unit tangent
v = stretch
Length-force expressions
0
2
0 1
2
2 2
1
0
2
2
0
2
( , ) 1 [1 ( ( , ))];
1 1
( ) | | ;
cot h( ) 1
( , ) 1 ;
n
p
p
p
B
L K L g K
K
L
g
L n
L
L
L
K L
K k T
t
t j t
j
p j
p j p j
p j
t k
j t t
kp
^
=

= + -

= =
+
-
=

= + =
t
L(t,K) = equilibrium length at given t and K
Force-extension Curves
Scaling at Small Strain
G
'
/
G
'

(
0
)

Strain/strain8
zero parameter fit to everything
Theoretical curve:
calculated from
K
-1
=0
What are Nematic Gels?
Homogeneous Elastic media with
broken rotational symmetry
(uniaxial, biaxial)
Most interesting - systems with
broken symmetry that develops
spontaneously from a
homogeneous, isotropic elastic
state
Examples of LC Gels
1. Liquid Crystal Elastomers - Weakly crosslinked
liquid crystal polymers
4. Glasses with orientational order
2. Tanaka gels with hard-rod
dispersion
3. Anisotropic membranes
Nematic
Smectic-C
Properties I
Large thermoelastic effects - Large
thermally induced strains - artificial muscles
Courtesy of
Eugene Terentjev
300% strain
Properties II
Large strain in small
temperature range
Terentjev
Properties III
Soft or Semi-soft elasticity
Vanishing xz shear modulus
Soft stress-strain for stress
perpendicular to order
Warner Finkelmann
Model for Isotropic-Nematic trans.
( )
2 2
2
3 2
1
2
Tr Tr Tr f Bu u C u D u
aa
m - + = + % % %
1
3
u u u
ab ab ab gg
d = - %
approaches zero signals a transition to a nematic state with a
nonvanishing
( )
1
3
u S n n
a
ab b ab
d = - %
Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
Phase transition to anisotropic
state as goes to zero
Direction of n
0
is
arbitrary
0
0 0
1
3
( )
u u
n n
ab ab
a b ab
d
=
= Y -
% %
2
~ u
aa
Y
( )
1
2 0 0 0
T
u d = L L -
0 0
2u d L = +
Symmetric-
Traceless
part
Strain of New Phase
ou is the deviation of
the strain relative to the
original reference frame R
from u
0

u is the strain relative
to the new state at
points x
ou is linearly proportional
to u
( )
1 1
2 2
' ( )
T
T
u d h h

= L L - +
% %
0
( ) ( )
( )
i ij j i
i i
R x u
x u
d = L +

= +
x x
x
( )
0
1
2
0 0
0 0
'
T T
T
u u u
u
d = -
= L L - L L
= L L
% % %
% % % %
% % %
0
i i k
ij ik kj
j j k
x R R
x x x
L = = = L L

Elasticity of New Phase
Rotation of anisotropy
direction costs no energy
C
5
=0 because of
rotational
invariance
This 2nd order expansion
is invariant under all U
but only infinitesimal V
( )
( )
1 1 1
0 0 0 0
1
1
4
1 1
' ( )
1 cos2 sin 2
( 1)
sin 2 1 cos2
T
r
r
r
u V u V u
r
q q
q q
- - -
= L - L

-

= -

- -

( 1)
' ~
4
xz
r
u
r
q
-
2
0| |
2
0
r
^
L
=
L
2
1 1
2 2
1 2 3 el
5 4
zz zz
z z
f C u C u u C u u
C u u C u u
nn nn nn
nt nt n n

= + +

+ +
Soft Extensional Elasticity
Strain u
xx
can be converted to a
zero energy rotation by
developing strains u
zz
and u
xz

until u
xx
=(r-1)/2
( )
1
1
4
1 1
1 cos2 sin 2
( 1)
sin 2 1 cos2
r
r
r
u r
q q
q q

-

= -

- -

1
1
( 1 2 )
2
zz xx
xz xx xx
u u
r
u u r u
r
= -
= - -
Frozen anisotropy: Semi-soft
( ) ( )
h
zz
f u f u hu = -
( ) ( ) ( 2 )
h
zz xz
f u f u h u u q
= - +
System is now uniaxial why not simply use uniaxial elastic
energy? This predicts linear stress-stain curve and misses
lowering of energy by reorientation:
2 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
5 1 2 3 4
zz zz z
f C u C u u C u C u C u
nn nn nt n
= + + + +
Model Uniaxial system:
Produces harmonic uniaxial
energy for small strain but has
nonlinear terms reduces to
isotropic when h=0
f (u) : isotropic
2
2
xz xx zz
xx zz xz
u u u
u u u
u u u
q
- -

= +

-

Rotation
Semi-soft stress-strain
2 2 ( ) 2( )
( )
0 or
h
xz xz xx zz zz xx xz
xx xz
xz xz
xx zz
xx
df
hu u u u
d
h u
u u
u h
s s
s
s s
s
q
=
= - = - -
-
=
-
=
+
h
f
u
ab
ab
s

=
Ward Identity
Second Piola-Kirchoff
stress tensor.
Semi-soft Extensions
Not perfectly soft because of residual
anisotropy arising from crosslinking in
the the nematic phase - semi-soft.
length of plateau depends on magnitude
of spontaneous anisotropy r.
Warner-Terentjev
Stripes form in real
systems: semi-soft, BC
Break rotational symmetry
Finkelmann, et al., J. Phys. II 7, 1059 (1997);
Warner, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 47, 1355 (1999)
Note: Semi-softness
only visible in nonlinear
properties
Softness with Director
2 2 2
1 1
2 2
1 2 3 4
2 2
1
2
5 2 1
2 2 2
1 1
2 2
1 2 3 4
2
2
1
4 2
1
4
2
2 2
1 1
2 2
5 1 2 1 2 1
[ ( / ) ] [ ( / )]
zz zz
z z z
zz zz
zz
z z
n u
gn
f C u C u u C u C u
C u D n n u D n
C u C u u C u C u
D n D D u C D u
u
D
n
n
n n t t
nn nn nt
n n n n
nn nn nt
n n n
l
l
+
+ +
= + + +
+ + +
= + + +
+ + + -
+
%
% %
%
L %% %
2
2
5 5
1
1
0
2
R
D
C C
D
Soft = - =
Director relaxes to zero
( , )
z
n n
o v
= n
N
o
= unit vector along uniaxial direction in reference space;
layer normal in a locked SmA phase

2 2 2
1 ( ) ; , et c.
zz
n N n c u N u N
v o o v o
o| |
= =
Red: SmA-SmC transition

Nonlinear Elasticity

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7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

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