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Annual global mean wind power at 50m above the surface Ref:
Conversion
Wind energy atmospheric kinetic energy determined by mass and motion speed of the air Utilising wind energy involves installation of a device that converts kinetic energy in the atmosphere to useful energy (mechanical, electrical) Windmills have been used to convert wind energy into mechanical energy for over 3000years
So, KE = AtV3
Wind power density (per unit area and per second) is: Power = V3
Power Density
The atmosphere approximates an ideal gas equation in which at the STP (T0 = 288.1K), (P0 = 100.325 Pa),
0 = 1.225kg/m3
Diurnal Variations
Predicable (ish) based on time of the day (depending on location) Important for integrating large amounts of wind-power into the grid
Turbulence
Short-time-scale predictability (minutes or less) Significant effect on design and performance of turbines Effects quality of power delivered to the grid Turbulence intensity is given by I = / V, where is the standard deviation on the wind speed
Weibull Distribution
Weibull distribution gives a good representation of hourly mean wind speeds over a year F(V) = exp(-(V/c)k)
Where F(V) is the fraction of time for which the hourly mean wind speed exceeds V c is the scale parameter and k is the shape parameter which describe the variability about the mean Mean wind speed = V = c(1 + 1/k)
Weibull Distribution
The probability distribution function :
f(V) = -dF(V)/dV = k(Vk-1 / ck) exp(-(V/c)k)
F(U) 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 F(U)
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f(U)
0.1 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0
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f(U)
10
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24
Wind Turbines
Wind energy systems convert kinetic energy in the atmosphere into electricity (or for pumping fluid) Two basic categories
Horizontal axis wind turbine (rotating axis horizontal to ground) Vertical axis wind turbine (rotating axis vertical to ground)
Horizontal Axis
Vertical Axis
Rotating shaft connected to gearing box to set suitable speed to drive a generator 3 types:
Constant Speed Turbine
Runs at 1 speed, regardless of windspeed Cheap and robust Prone to noise and mechanical stress Runs at variable speeds Greater dynamic efficiency Reduced mechanical stress and noise generation
Power Output
Power output from a wind turbine is given by:
P = Cp A V3
Where Cp is the power coefficient is the air density A is the rotor swept area V is the wind speed
Cp describes the fraction of the power in the wind that may be converted by the turbine into mechanical work
velocity
pressure
p-d
Mass Flow
Mass flow rate must be the same everywhere along the tube so,
A V = Ad Vd = Aw Vw (i) refers to conditions far upstream/downstream d refers to conditions at the disk w refers to conditions in the far wake
The turbine induces a velocity variation which is superimposed on the free stream velocity, so:
Vd = V(1 a) (ii) Where a is known as the axial flow induction factor, or the inflow factor
Momentum
The air that passes through the disk undergoes an overall change in velocity (V - Vw), Rate of change of momentum dP
dP= (V - Vw)AdVd = overall change in velocity x mass flow rate (iii)
The force causing this change in momentum is due to pressure difference across turbine so,
(p+d p-d)Ad = (V - Vw)AdV( 1-a) (iv)
Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis equation states that, under steady state conditions, the total energy in a flow, comprising kinetic energy, static pressure energy, and gravitational potential, remains the same provided no work is done on or by the fluid So, for a volume of air,
V2 + p + gh = constant (v)
Assuming = d and h = hd
V2 + p = d Vd2 + p+d V2 + p = d Vd2 + p-d (vii) (viii)
From (iv),
(V2 - Vw2) Ad = (V - Vw)AdV( 1-a) Vw = (1 -2a)V (ix) (x)
Power Coefficient
From earlier, Force F
F = (p+d p-d)Ad = 2AdV2( 1-a)
Rate of work done by the force at the turbine = FVd Power = FVd = 2AdV3( 1-a)2 Cp (Power Coefficient) = ratio of power harvested to power available in the air Cp = (2AdV3( 1-a)2 ) / ( AdV3) Cp = 4a(1 a)2
Most interesting for us is that the boundary layer properties are strongly influenced by surface roughness therefore site selection is critical
d 5d
Capacity Factor
Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year Capacity factor = actual productivity / theoretical maximum Typical capacity factors are 2040%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties of wind. Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost, with a small amount of downtime for maintenance
Barriers
Major issues restricting the development of wind energy include:
Lack of robust technical information has lead to opposition to wind farms being developed in certain areas Environmental concerns including noise, shadows, flickering, wildlife (birds), visual impact, electromagnetic interference Financial incentives and taxation from government are inadequate Grid connection and axis not fairly provided