Radioactivity

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The nucleus
The best model of the atom was known as the Thomson or plum pudding model. The atom was believed to consist of a positive material pudding with negative plums distributed throughout.

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 Geiger and Marsden's experiment This experiment changed the way we think of the atom. Since particle accelerators were yet to be developed, naturally occurring high energy particles were used as projectiles. Alpha particles are spontaneously emitted by certain heavy elements. These particles have speeds of the order of 107 m/s.

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 These were made incident on thin films of metals of high atomic weight, such as gold.

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Isotopes
The number of protons in an atom is crucial. It gives you the charge of the nucleus and therefore it gives you the number of electrons needed for a neutral atom. Change the number of protons and you change the element.

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 The number of neutrons in the nucleus is less crucial. You can change the number of neutrons without changing the chemical properties of the atom. So it behaves in the same way. Atoms with the same proton number but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. 1 2 3 1 H,1 H, 1 H are isotopes of hydrogen

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Modern uses of Radioisotopes!

Smoke Detectors and Americium-241

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Radioactive tracers in plants

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Food Irradiation

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 Food irradiated by exposing it to the gamma rays of a radioisotope -- one that is widely used is cobalt-60. The energy from the gamma ray passing through the food is enough to destroy many diseasecausing bacteria as well as those that cause food to spoil, but is not strong enough to change the quality, flavor or texture of the food. It is important to keep in mind that the food never comes in contact with the radioisotope and is never at risk of becoming radioactive.
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 Some meats are irradiated. Pork, for example, is irradiated to control the trichina parasite that resides in the muscle tissue of some pigs. Poultry is irradiated to eliminate the chance of food borne illness due to bacterial contamination.

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 Recalling that all biologic organisms contain a given concentration of carbon-14, we can use this information to help solve questions about when the organism died. It works like this:when an organism dies it has a specific ratio by mass of carbon-14 to carbon-12 incorporated in the cells of it's body. (The same ratio as in the atmosphere.) At the moment of death, no new carbon-14 containing molecules are metabolized, therefore the ratio is at a maximum. After death, the carbon-14 to carbon-12 ratio begins to decrease because carbon-14 is decaying away at a constant and predictable rate.
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Archaeological dating

Thickness control
Beta radiation sources can be used to measure the thickness of materials. Beta radiation can penetrate paper, plastic and other thin materials. However the count will be reduced, and from this reduction the thickness of the material can be gauged.
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Radioactivity
Some atoms are unstable. They have too much energy or the wrong mix of particles in the nucleus. So to make themselves more stable, they breakdown (or decay) and get rid of some matter and/or some energy. This is called radioactive decay and isotopes of atoms that do this are called radioisotopes.

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 The process is spontaneous and random. You cant do anything to speed it up or slow it down- spontaneous. You cant predict when it will happenrandom (Cant predict which atom will decay at any given time. The only reason we can do any calculations on radioisotopes is because there are huge numbers of atoms in most samples so we can use statistics to accurately predict whats most likely to happen.
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Radioactive Decay is a Random Process

You can NEVER tell when an individual atom is going to decay. You can figure out approximately how many atoms in a group are going to decay in a certain time, but you cant tell which ones are going to blow. The timescale for radioactive decay is described by the quantity called a half-life. Half-lives can be VERY short (helium-5 decays in 7.6 x 10-22 seconds), or very long (thorium232 decays in 1.4 billion years).

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Precautions for Using Radioactive Material

Label all containers with a radioactive material label and specify the isotope No eating, drinking or smoking in the laboratory Use spill trays and absorbent covering Use fume hoods for handling potentially volatile material Use glove/ box for handling large quantities of volatile material Wear laboratory coat, disposable gloves, and laboratory safety glasses Use gloves appropriate for the chemicals to be handled Use automatic or remote pipetting devices. NEVER pipette by mouth.
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G-M tube

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Cloud Chamber
The cloud chamber, also known as the Wilson chamber, is used for detecting particles of ionizing radiation. In its most basic form, a cloud chamber is a sealed environment containing a supercooled, supersaturated water or alcohol vapour. When an alpha particle or beta particle interacts with the mixture, it ionises it.

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symbol

Nature

Penetrating power Relative mass

Relative Relative Charge speed

Helium nuclide

Stopped by paper or the skin. Range in air is short Stopped by thin metal. e.g. Aluminum foil

+2

1/20 the speed of light Variable - up to 90% speed of light Speed of light

Fast moving electrons

negligible

-1

Electromagnetic radiation

Reduced by many cms of lead or a few metres of concrete

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Background radiation
Background radiation is the radiation all around us. Working in pairs try to think of five possible sources of background radiation.

You have FIVE minutes!!

Rocks Air

Building materials Outer space Food

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Safety first
There are several types of radiation. They differ in what effects they have and their nature. All radioactive sources must be handled safely.

Do you know what the hazard symbol for radiation is?

As well as the normal laboratory safety instructions you follow are there any extra rules concerning radioactivity?
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Springfield Nuclear Power Plant Safety Any employee who fails to adhere Rules: to the rules below will be suspended:
1. Do not handle radioactive sources directly use tongs or a robotic arm.

2.
3. 4.

Never point a radioactive source at a fellow worker or yourself.

When not in use store radioactive sources in lead-lined containers. Always wear radiation protection suits.

5.

Radiation badges should be worn to record exposure to radiation.

Mr. Burnz

Task:

Working in pairs write down the three safety rules from above that would be most relevant in your school saying why you chose them. Also say which safety rule you think is the most important and why.

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The penetration power of the three types of radiation.

Thin mica

Skin or paper stops ALPHA

Thin aluminium stops BETA

Thick lead reduces GAMMA

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The effects of a field on radiation

Beta radiation has a 1 charge and a small mass so is strongly deflected Gamma radiation has no mass or charge so it is not deflected. Alpha radiation has a +2 charge but a RAM of 4 so is only weakly deflected.

The effect of a magnetic or electric field on radiation depends upon the nature of the radiation.

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Effect of Magnetic field

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Using your results from the previous three investigations, fill in the table below:
Alpha Penetrating power least Less than 10 cm. least most yes Beta medium medium medium medium yes Gamma most longest most least no

Range of radiation
Most dangerous outside of body Most dangerous inside of body Affected by a magnetic field

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Alpha radiation -
Description: 2 neutrons, 2 protons (helium nuclei) Electric Charge: +2 Relative Atomic Mass: 4 Penetration power: Stopped by paper or a few cm of air

Helium nuclei

Ionisation effect:

Strongly ionising
Effects of Magnetic/Electric Field: Weakly deflected
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Beta radiation -
Description: High energy electron Electric Charge: -1 Relative Atomic Mass: 1/1840th

high energy electron

Penetration power: Stopped by few mm of aluminium Ionisation effect:

Weakly ionising
Effects of Magnetic/Electric Field: Strongly deflected
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Gamma radiation -
Description: High energy electromagnetic radiation Electric Charge:

0
Relative Atomic Mass: 0 Penetration power: Reduced by several cms of lead or several metres of concrete Ionisation effect: Very weakly ionising Effects of Magnetic/Electric Field: NO deflection
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Electromagnetic radiation

Match the radiation

Alpha

Electromagnetic radiation High energy electron Helium nuclei

Stopped by paper or skin Reduced by lead

Beta

Gamma

Stopped by aluminium

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Ionising radiation
What happens if radiation is incident upon a living cell? Radiation can ionise cells which causes cellular damage. If the exposure is high, it can kill the cell. If the exposure is lower it can cause cancer. The higher the exposure, the higher the risk of cancer. Alpha is the most ionising radiation, gamma is the least. Ionising radiation can be used to kill cancer cells.
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Ionisation questions
1. What is ionisation? When a neutral atom loses or gains electrons and hence charge. 2. How is a neutral atom positively ionised? By losing electrons. 3. How is a neutral atom negatively ionised? By gaining electrons. 4. What two effects on living cells can ionisation have? Kill cells or cause cancer. 5. Which type of radiation is the most ionising? Alpha radiation. 6. Which type of radiation is the least ionising? Gamma radiation.

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Which type of radiation is..

1. The most penetrating? 2. The least penetrating? Gamma Alpha

3. Least dangerous outside the body?

4. Most dangerous inside the body? 5. High energy electrons? Beta Beta Beta

Alpha
Alpha

6. Has a negative charge?

7. Is weakly ionising?

8. Has zero charge and zero mass?

Gamma
Gamma

9. Only reduced in intensity by lead and concrete?

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Uses of radiation

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Sterilisation
Gamma rays are used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food. This can be done even after the food has been packaged. It can affect the taste, but supermarkets like it because it lengthens the shelf life. Gamma rays are also used to kill bacteria on hospital equipment. It is particularly useful with plastic equipment that would be damaged by heat sterilisation.
unsterilised Gamma Source sterilised

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Radiotherapy

A carefully controlled beam of gamma rays can be used to kill cancer cells. It must be directed carefully to minimise the damage to normal cells. However, some damage is unavoidable and this can make the patient ill.

It is therefore a balancing act - getting the dose high enough to kill the cancerous cells, but as low as possible to minimise the harm to the patient.

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Leak detection in pipes

The radioactive isotope is injected into the pipe. Then the outside of the pipe is checked with a Geiger-Muller detector, to find areas of high radioactivity. These are the points where the pipe is leaking. This is useful for underground pipes that are hard to get near.

The isotope must have a short half life so the material does not become a long term problem. The radioactive isotope must be a gamma emitter so that it can be detected through the metal and the earth where the pipe leaks. Alpha and beta rays would be blocked by the metal and the earth.

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Thickness Control Mill

If not A radioactive enough source is on is radioactivity one side of the detected then material the rollers and a detector on compress tothe other. the make material thinner. If too much radioactivity This method is is getting used in through, the then the material manufacture of is too lots ofthin sheet and the rollers open materials: up a bit to plastics, paper, make the material sheet steel. thicker.

Beta Source

detector Hydraulic ram

Electronic instructions to adjust rollers.

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Detecting radiation
What are the different methods?

Gieger-Muller Tube Spark counter Photographic film Cloud chamber

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Photographic film
1. What happens to film when radiation is incident upon it? It darkens.

2.

Can photographic film tell you the type of radiation incident upon it? No, just the amount of radiation received.

3.

What can this be used for?

Can be used in radiation badges, that record the exposure of workers to radiation. Different windows detect different types of radiation.
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Geiger-Muller Tube
The detector is a metal tube filled with gas. The tube has a thin wire down the middle and a voltage between the wire and the casing.
Good at detecting alpha and beta, not as good at detecting gamma. collision & ionisation radiation Argon Argon gas gas The Argon contains a little bromine to act as a quenching agent and prevent continuous discharge.

mica window

When the radioactivity enters the tube, it ionises the gas in the tube. This produces a pulse of current which is amplified and passed to a counter.

counter 124 125

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The Spark Detector

The spark detector consists of a metal grid and a metal strip. A high voltage is applied between the grid and the strip. The voltage is increased until electrical arcing (sparking) across the gap just occurs. When ionising radiation is placed close to the detector there is a marked increasing in the amount of sparking. Which type of radiation will be detected the best? Why?
High voltage supply

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Cloud chamber
Cloud chambers show the actual paths of the ionising particles. They rely on ionisation. The cloud chamber is cooled and then is super-saturated with alcohol. If an ion is formed a droplet of condensation appears. Best for alpha radiation as alpha most ionising; then Beta which shows faint traces, but cloud chambers are not as good for gamma as gamma is only weakly ionising.
Radioactive source Cooled alcohol vapour

Solid carbon dioxide

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What is a Half-Life?
The half-life of time that it will take half of the atoms to decay. This does not mean that in twice that amount of time, all the atoms will decay. Since this is a random process, there is no history and you have to start over, so in the second half-life, half of the remaining atoms will decay, leaving a quarter of the original atoms.

(t) is the amount

Time (T) = 0

N undecayed atoms

T=

t t

N/2 undecayed atoms N/2 something else N/4 undecayed atoms 3/4 x N something else N/8 undecayed atoms 7/8 x N something else

T=2x

T=3x

...
T = 10 x

Note: All the atoms will still be there, but the ones that have decayed will be a different element.

N/1024 undecayed atoms 1023/1024 x N something else

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Radioactive Decay Kinetics - plot

Radioactive Decays

47
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Percentage of Carbon 14 (%)

100
75 50 25 0

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The percentage of carbon-14 found in this wooden bow:

25%
What is the age of the bow?

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The percentage of carbon-14 found in this wooden bow:

12.5%
What is the age of the skull?

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Applications of Radioactive Decay Kinetic

Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter.

Anthropologists, biologists, chemists, diagnosticians, engineers, geologists, physicists, and physicians often use radioactive nuclides in their respective work. Radioactive Decays

Nuclide Half life 219Th90 1 s 26Na11 1s 40Cl17 1.4 min 32P15 14.3 d 14C6 5730 y 235U92 7.04x108 y 238U92 4.46x109 y

54
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Radioactive Decay
What happens to the nucleus of an atom when it emits a radiation?

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Alpha Decay
When an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons For example, Radium 226 decays by alpha emission
22 Ra 22 Rn + 4 He 8 2 6 28 8 6 Note: The atomic and mass numbers on both sides of the equation balance.
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Beta decay
Beta decay is more complicated. A beta particle is an electron. But where does this electron come from? When an unstable nucleus emits an electron a neutron in its nucleus changes into a proton and an electron. The electron is emitted. For example Polonium-218 decays by beta emission

21 Po 21 At 0e + 8 -1 8 88 5 numbers on both sides of Note: 4 The atomic and mass

the equation balance.
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Gamma Decay
After an alpha or beta particle has been emitted from the nucleus of an isotope, the nucleus has too much energy. Too get rid of that excess energy, a gamma wave is emitted.

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Summary
Alpha Decay
22 Ra 8 6 8 22 Rn 28 6

4 He 2

Beta Decay
21 Po 8 8 4

21 At 88 5

0e -1

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Which type of radiation is the most penetrating?

A. Alpha
B. Beta C. Gamma D. X rays

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Which type of radiation is the most damaging inside the body?

A. Alpha
B. Beta

C. Gamma D. X rays

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Which type of radiation is the most dangerous outside the body?

A. Alpha
B. Beta C. Gamma D. X rays

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Which of the following is not a use of radiation?

A. Pre-natal scans
B. Radiotherapy

C. Smoke detectors D. Detecting leaks

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Nuclear Reactions:

AN INTRODUCTION TO FISSION & FUSION

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E = mc2
Matter can be changed into Energy Einsteins formula above tells us how the change occurs In the equation above: E = Energy m = Mass c = Speed of Light (Universal Constant)
Energy Mass Light Speed
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E = mc2
The equation may be read as follows:

Energy (E) is equal to Mass (m) multiplied by the Speed of Light (c) squared

This tells us that a small amount of mass can be converted into a very large amount of energy because the speed of light (c) is an extremely large number

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How much energy in a buck?

A dollar bill has a mass of 1 gram. m = 0.001 kg; c = 3 x 108 m/s; E = ? E = mc2 E = (0.001 kg)(3 x 108 m/s)2 E = 9 x 1013 J = 90,000,000,000,000 J E = 12 kilotons of TNT-equivalent

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Fiss vs. Fuse

Fiss = break down Start with a larger atom and finish with two or more smaller atoms Fuse = build up Start with two smaller atoms and finish with one larger atom

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Fission
When atoms are bombarded with neutrons, their nuclei splits into 2 parts which are roughly equal in size. Nuclear fission in the process whereby a nucleus, with a high mass number, splits into 2 nuclei which have roughly equal smaller mass numbers.

During nuclear fission, neutrons are released.

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Nuclear Fission
There are 2 types of fission that exist:
1. Spontaneous Fission 2. Induced Fission

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Spontaneous Fission
Some radioisotopes contain nuclei which are highly unstable and decay spontaneously by splitting into 2 smaller nuclei.

Such spontaneous decays are accompanied by the release of neutrons.

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Induced Fission
Nuclear fission can be induced by bombarding atoms with neutrons. The nuclei of the atoms then split into 2 equal parts. Induced fission decays are also accompanied by the release of neutrons.

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The Fission Process

A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235 nucleus.

1 0

235 92 U

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The Fission Process

A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235 nucleus.

1 0

235 92 U

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The Fission Process

A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235 nucleus.

1 0

235 92 U

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The Fission Process

The neutron strikes the nucleus which then captures the neutron.

1 0

235 92 U

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The Fission Process

The nucleus changes from being uranium-235 to uranium-236 as it has captured a neutron.

236 92 U

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The Fission Process

The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

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The Fission Process

The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

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The Fission Process

The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

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The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases neutrons.
1 0 141 56 Ba 1 0 92 36 Kr 1 0

n
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The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases neutrons.
1 0 141 56 Ba

1 0

92 36 Kr 1 0

n
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The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases neutrons.
1 0 141 56 Ba

1 0

92 36 Kr 1 0

n
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The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases 1 neutrons. 0n
141 56 Ba

1 0

92 36 Kr 1
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Nuclear Fission Examples

235

U n + 92 0
U n + 92 0
1

141

Ba Kr n 3 + + 56 36 0
Cs Rb n 2 + + 55 37 0
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92

235

138

96

Energy from Fission

Both the fission fragments and neutrons travel at high speed.

The kinetic energy of the products of fission are far greater than that of the bombarding neutron and target atom.
EK before fission << EK after fission

Energy is being released as a result of the fission reaction.

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Energy from Fission

235

U n + 92 0
Element
235 138 92U 55Cs

138

Cs Rb n 2 + + 55 37 0
Atomic Mass (kg) 3.9014 x 10-25 2.2895 x 10-25

96

96

37Rb
0n

1.5925 x 10-25
1.6750 x 10-27
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Energy from Fission

Calculate the total mass before and after fission takes place. The total mass before fission (LHS of the equation):
3.9014 x 10-25 + 1.6750 x 10-27 = 3.91815 x 10-25 kg

The total mass after fission (RHS of the equation):

2.2895 x 10-25 + 1.5925 x 10-25 + (2 x 1.6750 x 10-27) = 3.9155 x 10-25 kg

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Energy from Fission

The total mass before fission = 3.91815 x 10-25 kg
The total mass after fission = 3.91550 x 10-25 kg total mass before fission > total mass after fission

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Energy from Fission

mass difference, m = total mass before fission total mass after fission

m = 3.91815 x 10-25 3.91550 x 10-25 m = 2.65 x 10-28 kg

This reduction in mass results in the release of energy.

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Energy Released
The energy released can be calculated using the equation:

E = mc2
Where:
E = energy released (J) m = mass difference (kg)

m c2

c = speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108 ms-1)

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Energy from Fission

Calculate the energy released from the following fission reaction:

235

U n + 92 0
m = 2.65 x 10-28 kg c = 3 x 108 ms-1

138

Cs Rb n 2 + + 55 37 0
E = mc2 E = 2.65 x 10-28 x (3 x 108)2 E = 2.385 x 10-11 J

96

E=E

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Energy from Fission

The energy released from this fission reaction does not seem a lot. This is because it is produced from the fission of a single nucleus. Large amounts of energy are released when a large number of nuclei undergo fission reactions.

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Energy from Fission

Each uranium-235 atom has a mass of 3.9014 x 10-25 kg. The total number of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 can be found as follows: No. of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 = 1/3.9014 x 10-25 No. of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 = 2.56 x 1024 atoms

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Energy from Fission

If one uranium-235 atom undergoes a fission reaction and releases 2.385 x 10-11 J of energy, then the amount of energy released by 1 kg of uranium-235 can be calculated as follows: total energy = energy per fission x number of atoms total energy = 2.385 x 10-11 x 2.56 x 1024

total energy = 6.1056 x 1013 J

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FUSION
DEUTERIUM NEUTRON

HELIUM

TRITIUM

http://fusioned.gat.com

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Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion, two nuclei with low mass numbers combine to produce a single nucleus with a higher mass number.

H H + 1 1

Energy He n + + 2 0

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The Fusion Process

2 1H

3 1H

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The Fusion Process

2 1H

3 1H

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The Fusion Process

2 1H

3 1H

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The Fusion Process

2 1H 3 1H

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The Fusion Process

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The Fusion Process

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The Fusion Process

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The Fusion Process

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The Fusion Process

1 0 4 2 He

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The Fusion Process

1 0 4 2 He

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The Fusion Process

1 0

4 2 He

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The Fusion Process

1 0

4 2 He

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Energy from Fusion

2

H H + 1 1
Element
2 3 1H 1H

Energy He n + + 2 0
Atomic Mass (kg) 3.345 x 10-27 5.008 x 10-27

4 He 2
1 0n

6.647 x 10-27
1.6750 x 10-27
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Energy from Fusion

2

H H + 1 1

Energy He n + + 2 0

The total mass before fusion (LHS of the equation): 3.345 x 10-27 + 5.008 x 10-27 = 8.353 x 10-27 kg The total mass after fission (RHS of the equation): 6.647 x 10-27 + 1.675 x 10-27 = 8.322 x 10-27 kg
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Energy from Fusion

m = total mass before fission total mass after fission
m = 8.353 x 10-27 8.322 x 10-27

m = 3.1 x 10-29 kg

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Energy from Fusion

2

H H + 1 1
m = 3.1 x 10-29 kg c = 3 x 108 ms-1
E=E

Energy He n + + 2 0
E = mc2 E = 3.1 x 10-29 x (3 x 108)2 E = 2.79 x 10-12 J

The energy released per fusion is 2.79 x 10-12 J.

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How fission can be used?

GOOD
A controlled chain reaction in a reactor used in nuclear power plants to produce electricity.

EVIL
An uncontrolled chain reaction is used to create incredibly powerful weapons the atomic bombs dropped on Japan.
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 Build up of nucleus or fusing of two nuclei to form one large nucleus Occurs at exceptionally high temperatures over 100 million degrees Laboratory Experiments

Nuclear Fusion

Deuterium and tritium accelerated Collide to form one new atom with a larger helium nucleus and a neutron is released Mass of helium and neutron less than mass of deuterium and tritium Mass that was lost became energy
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The Sun
Proton-proton chain reaction Two hydrogen atoms (protons) fuse together to create deuteron A third hydrogen atom collides with deuteron to create a helium isotope Helium isotopes fuse to make beryllium which breaks down Two protons are released and it starts again.
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How fusion can be used?

GOOD
A controlled reaction in a reactor used to produce cleaner, inexpensive electricity???

EVIL
A fission bomb starts a fusion chain reaction to create an incredibly powerful weapon thermonuclear weapons (Hbombs), MUCH more destructive than atomic bombs.
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