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2
SUN, ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM, AND HEAT BALANCE
The energy that derives most of the physical and chemical processes in
the earth comes from the sun.
Some of this energy is imparted to the atmosphere, but most of it
absorbed by the surface of the earth.
The energy received from the sun is in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.
3
The motions in the atmosphere are due to energy received from sun plus
rotation of the earth.
The thickness of the atmosphere (110 m) is small compared to the
radius of the earth (average 6370 km).
But it has a fair mass 5x10
18
kg. This high mass shows that it can store
fair amount of heat and energy in it.
4
Albedo and Angle of Incidence
Albedo
Fraction of the incoming radiation reflected or scattered back to
space
Clouds, Snow, Ice covered surfaces 0.5 0.8
Fields, Forests 0.03 0.3
Water 0.02 0.05
Average over the earth surface 0.35
5
Solar radiation reaching to the surface of the earth is remarkably constant.
The sun spots and variations in solar activity effects the x-rays reaching to
earth.
Since x-ray region of the spectrum is absorbed at the very top of the
atmosphere, such activities do not effect the radiation reaching to the
surface.
6
Albedo is only one of the factors affecting the solar flux.
The amount solar radiation reaching to the surface
The angle of incidence of radiation compared to the
perpendicular to the surface
Zenith angle



Also effects the solar flux at a given point.
Zenith angle

7
The solar flux on a horizontal surface (S
h
) is given by
S
h
= S cos Z
S: flux through an area normal to the solar beam,
Z: zenith angle which is the angle between the local vertical and solar
beam.
Note that at angles away from local vertical (large Z) the solar radiation has
to traverse greater distance to cross the atmosphere and scattered more
and absorbed more in the process.
8
The earths axes is 23.5 tilted. Because of this, the north pole is tilted toward
the sun on June 22 and away from the sun at December 21






Because of this tilt, the zenith angle will be different at different latitude.
23.5 23.5
9
The zenith angle (Z) is given by
Cos Z = sin | sin o + cos | cos q
|: Latitude (positive for northern hemisphere)
o: Solar declination
q: Hour angle (15 x # of hours before local noon)
10
Solar azimuth (e)
Angle between south and the direction toward the sun in a horizontal plane.
sin e = (cos o sin q)/sin Z








e
11
Since most of the surfaces receiving solar radiation are not horizontal, we
must be able to find the solar flux over an inclined surface. It is given by
S
s
= S[cos Z cos I + sin Z sin I cos (e - e)
I: slope of the surface
e: degrees from south
e and e are negative to the east of south and positive to the west of south.
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STABILITY AND INSTABILITY
Introduction Ventilation
Means enhancement or suppression of the vertical motion of air in the
atmosphere.
There are three mechanisms with which air moves vertically.
1. Lifting over terrain
2. Lifting over weather fronts
3. Convergence toward low-pressure centers.
Downward movement of air is generally due to make up uplifted air
masses.
13
Mixing height
Plot radiosonde ascent in the morning
Plot the dry adiabat starting from surface temperature at any time of
the day.
The altitude at which these two intersect is the mixing height.
This is an approximation because temperature profile determined by
morning radiosonde is assumed to be the same through the day.
14
Potential temperature
Temperature of the parcel of dry air would be if it is brought to 1000 mb
adiabatically. It is given by
u = T(1000/p)
0.288

If potential temperature decrease with height, the atmosphere is
unstable, and if the u increase with height the atmosphere is stable.
15
Radiation and Nocturnal inversion
This is the inversion caused by rapid heating and cooling of the surface.








z
T
8:00
At night
Unstable
9:00
12:00
7:00
Radiation Inversion
z
T
8:00
At night
Unstable
9:00
12:00
7:00
Radiation Inversion
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Subsidence inversion
Subsidence in atmospheric jargon means descent of air masses.
Air descends in front of high-pressure systems.
As it descends it heats up adiabatically (temperature increase).
At the lower altitude where it ends up, its temperature will be higher
than the temperature based on Actual lapse rate. This generate a
stable inversion layer called subsidence inversion.
17
LAWS OF MOTION
There are both horizontal and vertical motions in the atmosphere. So far we
have discussed the vertical movement of air masses.
The horizontal component of atmospheric movement is called wind.
Winds are the result of various forces in the atmosphere.
They can be treated using Newtons second law of motion (F = ma)
Newtons law does not take into account the rotation of the earth, but the
rotation do effect winds and should be taken into account in the treatment.
18
There are three important forces acting on an air parcel in the atmosphere:
Pressure-gradient force
Gravity
Friction
19
Pressure gradient force is the force acting on an air parcel due to existence
of pressure difference in the atmosphere.
There are horizontal pressure gradients in the atmosphere (due to
horizontal temperature and density differences).
Exerts a force on an air parcel. This force is called pressure gradient force
and given by:
P
h
= Ap/Ax
Ap is the horizontal p difference at distance Ax.
20
Direction of pressure gradient force is perpendicular to the lines of equal
pressure (isobars).
The direction is from high to low pressure.









High - P
Center
Low - P
Center
P - gradient
force
High - P
Center
Low - P
Center
P - gradient
force
21
Coriolis Force
It is an apparent force, but not a real force.
Due to the rotation of the earth. Figure
Take an air parcel in the shown wind direction if wind blows in the
indicated direction for 1 hr at a speed of 10 m s
-1
.
Air parcel will move 36 km. But since the earth rotates (360 in 24 hrs,
or 15 per hour), when the air parcel reaches to point B, it meets with
point C not point B, because point A moved 15 to the west.
22
When you look at the movement of air parcel from space you can
see that it is flowing straight down. But when you view it from the
surface of the earth, you can say that the wind is deflected to the east
by 15.
This is called coriolis force. Although it is not a true force, it should be
treated like a true force.
Most important for aircraft flying long distance Figure
It can be considered as the force required to cause this deflection.
23
Coriolis force is given by:
D = vf
Where f is the coriolis parameter and has the value of
F = 2O sin |
O angular speed of earths rotation (7.27 x 10
-5
s
-1
)
| is latitude
Deflecting force is to the right of the wind vector in the northern hemisphere,
and to the left of the wind vector in the southern hemisphere.
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Geostrophic wind
When the p-gradient, and coriolis forces are the only forces acting,
the wind direction is the vector sum of these two forces.
When coriolis force is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
p-gradient force, a wind vector which is perpendicular to both vectors
occur (note that coriolis force is perpendicular to the wind vector). This
wind is called geostrophic wind.
Geostrophic wind is parallel to the isobars.
Figure
25
Gradient wind is observed when isobars are curved.
It is because of the additional force, namely the centrifugal force acting on
the system.
Gradient wind is observed when the gradient force is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the sum of the coriolis and
centrifugal forces.
The direction gradient wind is parallel to the isobars.
26
In the treatment of winds we have ignored effect of the friction.
Effect of friction is felt when you get close to the surface.
Above 700 m we can assume that the effect of friction is negligible.
The friction effects the winds in two ways:
It slows down the wind,
It turns the wind direction.
27
Because as the wind speed decrease the coriolis force also decrease. The
new wind will be in the direction where coriolis + friction forces are
balanced by p-gradient force. Figure
This turning of the wind with friction is called ekman spiral.
28
LOCAL WIND SYSTEMS
Sea and Land Breeze
Breeze system is due to different heating rates of the land and the sea
Land heats and cools faster than the sea (because solar radiation
penetrate several meters in the sea and have to heat all the water in
that layer. But it penetrates only few cm in the land and can easily
heat up that thin layer)
29
Particularly in sunny summer days lands heat up early in the morning hence
the air above the land surface warms and ascends.
Due to this ascent the P over the land is smaller than the P at the same
altitude over the sea.
The ascending air also cause a high P over approximately 200 m
from the surface.
The ascending air over the land surface is replaced by cooler air from the
sea, resulting in a flow from sea to land (see breeze).
Figure
L
H
L
H
30
The air that moves towards the land is replaced by the even cooler air
from higher altitudes.
This descent causes a Low P system at high altitudes.
At about 200 m from the surface air flows from high P over the land to
low P over the sea.
At night the land cools faster. The system is reversed and surface air moves
from land to sea forming land breeze.
Figure
31
Mountain and valley winds
Due to different heating rates of the slopes of the valley and the
center.
A slope facing to the sun heats up more than the middle of the valley
during day time.
Air adjacent to the slope warms faster and rises along the slope. This
wind is called upslope wind.
32
The air that rises is replaced by the cooler air from the centre of the valley
forming a complete loop.
At night situation is reversed and air descends along the slope (because
slopes cools faster) forming downslope winds.
Figure
There are various combinations of downslope and upslope winds
depending on the orientation of the valley.
Figure
33
Urban rural circulations
These type of winds are due to different thermal properties of the urban and
rural regions.
The concrete, asphalt and steel material used in urban areas can
heat up faster and can store heat more than the vegetations in the
rural area.
The net result is that the urban areas are heated more than their rural
surroundings and radiate heat most of the night.
Consequently urban areas are warmer than their surroundings throughout
the day.
34
The air ascends from the warmest part of the urban centre.
This ascended air is replaced by cooler air from rural areas. Forming a
surface flow from rural to urban and high altitude flow from urban to rural
regions.
The flow generally occurs in multiple cells in several directions.
This circulation is called urban heat island.
35
If regional air flow dominates upper flow, urban rural flow occur only in one
direction. This regional circulation is called urban plume.
Urban plume carries pollutants emitted in the urban area to rural
areas.
36
GENERAL CIRCULATION
There is an imbalance in the heat received by earth; equator receives more
energy than mid-latitudes and polar regions, thus heated more.
Means net influx of heat in equator and net out flux of heat at poles.
Atmosphere itself is not efficient in transporting the heat from equator
to poles.
Heat is transported to/from equator to poles by so called large-scale
circulations (winds).
37
This transport is accomplished by three consecutive cells in each
hemisphere.
In the tropical region surface winds move toward equator. The surface
winds in this cell are called easterlies, (because they are deflected to
west due to earths rotation and winds are named from where they
come) or trade winds.
Most of the surface at tropics is oceans. The surface winds pick up heat
and moisture as they move toward equator.
The region where trade winds from each hemisphere are met is called
intertropical convergence zone.
It is a low pressure zone.
38
Hot and humid air ascends and as it ascends it expands and cools. Water
in it condenses. Results in heavy rainfall in tropical regions.
As the water in ascending air condenses into clouds and rainfall, it
releases heat of condensation. Hence heating the air mass. This
latent heat is transported in the upper layers toward midlattitudes.
39
At 30N latitude, there is a high-pressure system. The warm air coming from
tropics at high altitude descends. While it descends it adiabatically warms
up. Thus pumping heat from equator to mid latitudes.
This first cell between the tropics and equator is called Hadley cell.
40
Mid-latitude winds are more transient.
In this region potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
There is mostly in the form of closed pressure systems (cyclones and
anticyclones)
These cell systems are mobile and causes frequent weather changes.
That is why the weather in mid latitudes (we are living in mid latitudes) are
more variable than the weather in tropics and in polar regions.
41
The general flow is toward the pole in the surface and towards the equator
at the top.
The last cell in each hemisphere is the one closest to the polar
regions.
In this cell air ascends in front of the polar front. Moves toward the
pole at the top and sinks over the pole, and moves toward the
equator at the surface.
It pumps heat to the polar zone with the same mechanism with the Hadley
cell.
42
Air picks up moisture over the ocean.
When it ascends it condenses and release heat. This heat is
transported toward pole.
When the air mass descends over the pole it warms up adiabatically.
This compensates the cooling as it ascends in the mid latitudes.
43
The overall picture is that the Hadley cell pumps heat to the mid-latitudes
by evaporating ocean in the equator. And the last cell pumps heat by
evaporating the ocean in mid-latitudes.
Figure
Warm ocean currents (such as Golfstream) also carries heat from
equator to the poles.
Cold currents (such as Labrador) brings cold water from poles to the
equator which is heated and sent again to the polar regions.
Figure
44
Vertical
Ventilation
(convective)
Emissions
Horizontal
Ventilation
(winds)
45
Inversion
Episode
Calm
STAGNANT
46
-6 C/km
Actual lapse rate
Back
Dry adiabat
-10C/km
-3C/km
+6C/km
47
A
T
DALR ALR
z
1

z
2
z
3

T
5
T
6

UNSTABLE
ALR DALR
STABLE
T
3

T
4

T
1

T
2

T
7
T
8

Back
48
Back
Temp
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
t
o
r
r
)

10
11
17
20
Phase diagram H
2
O
49
z
2

WALR
T
DALR
z
z
3

z
4

z
1

50
2
3
4
5
1
51
Figure 17.4. Radiation heat balance.

52
Figure 17.6. Temperature of a parcel of air forced to rise 200 m compared to the superadiabatic
environmental lapse rate.

53
Figure 17.7. Temperature of a parcel of air forced to rise 200 m compared to an inversion
environmental lapse rate.

54
Motion of the earth
1 hr later Time 0
15
Motion of the earth
B
A A
B
C
Wind blows
From point A to B
At ws = 10 m s
-1

For 1 hr
= 3600 s x 10 m s
-1

= 36000 m = 36 km
Earth rotates
360 per 24 hr
= 15 hr
-1

55
Istanbul Capetovn = 4000 km
Aircraft speed = 1000 km hr
-1

4 hours
Rotation of the earth
56 4 x 15 = 60
This is where you end up
This is where you want to go
57
High-P
Center
Low-P
Center
P
P-gradient
force
Geostrophic wind
P-1
P+1
Coriolis force
Geostrophic winds
58
P-gradient
Force
Coriolis F.
Friction F.
Rotated Wind
Low
P
High
P
Wind
59
High
P
Low
P
1000 m
G.L
P-2
P-1
P
P-3
60
1. Warm air over land rises
2. P at land surface < p sea surface
3. Cumuli develop aloft and move seaward
4. Upper level return land breeze
5. Cool air aloft sinks over water
6. Sea Breeze (meso-cold) Front
L
H
L
H
61
1. Cool air over land sinks
2. Land Breeze moves out over water
3. Relatively warmer water heats air which then rises
4. Upper level return sea breeze
5. Cool air over land sinks
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63
64
65
New York
London
66
67
Simplified global three-cell surface and upper air circulation patterns
68
69