Homeotasis

Concept of Homeotasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment within a living organism. Homeostatic mechanisms maintain optimal physical and chemical conditions in the body to allow normal enzymatic and other cellular activities to be carried out. In biological systems, homeostasis usually achieved by negative feedback.

input

Receptor (sensor)

Coordinator (control)

Effector (output)

Feedback loop

 (a) A stimulus is a change in the level of the factor (parameter) being regulated.This detectable change is known as the input. (b) The receptor (sensor ) detect a stimulus. (c) A coordinator (control) receives and control information from the receptor.It triggers the action that will correct the change. (d) An effector (output) carries out the action (corrective mechanism) that restore condition to its optimum. (e) The feedback loop enables the sensor to monitor any changes brought about the effector.

Control of Blood Glucose Level

 Glucose is the precursor for the manufacture of many organic compounds in the body It is a major fuel for cellular respiration The normal human blood concentration is 90mg glucose per 100ml of blood

 When blood glucose concentration rises above the set point, insulin is secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas The insulin molecules bind to receptor on the cell membrane

 And bring about changes in both cell surface membrane permeability and enzyme activity which leads to the following effects:
An increase in the uptake of glucose and amino acids into cells An increase in the rate of conversion of glucose to fat in adipose cells

An increase in the rate of conversion of glucose to glycogen in liver and muscle cells (glycogenesis) An increase in the rate of cellular respiration (conversion of glucose to O and HO)

 Insulin affects all the cells but muscle, fat and liver cells are its main targets When blood glucose concentration falls below the set point, the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete glucagon

DIABETES MELLITUS

 Diabetes mellitus is caused by the failure of beta cells in the pancreas to produce insulin or the failure/reduction of target cells to respond to insulin.

 The liver and other cells are unable to take up and metabolise glucose. The blood glucose level rises to above normal level (hyperglycaemia). The patients feels thirsty as more water is needed to dilute the blood and to lower the osmotic concentration of the blood.

 The kidney tubules are unable to reabsorb the high level of glucose. Excess glucose is removed in the urine (glycosuria). Fats and proteins are used as respiratory substrates resulting in the patient losing weight.

Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus)

Type 2 (noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus)

TYPE 1 DIABETES MELLITUS (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus)

It accounts 10-20 % of all cases of diabetes mellitus. It may be due to an autoimmunity disorder where cytotoxic T cells destroy the beta cell of islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Type 1 diabetes mellitus usually manifests in young people below the age of 20.The patients usually requires daily insulin injections.

TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS (noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus)

The remaining 80-90% of the patients has this type of diabetes. It is due to defiency in insulin secretion or the failure of insulin receptor on the plasma membrane of target cells to respond to insulin. This is often associated with inherited genetic factors, diet, obesity and increasing age. Some patients control their blood glucose level by regulating their diet and exercise. In severe case they still need daily insulin injections.

 Long term complications of diabetes mellitus if not treated include kidney disease, cataracts, blindness and cardiovascular disorders. Reduced circulation can lead to gangrene in the arm and legs. Excessive metabolism of fats lead to high concentration of ketones in the blood, acidosis (acidic metabolites accumulate in the blood) and the lowering of blood pH which can lead to coma and death

 Blood glucose levels can now be monitored using dipsticks and electronic biosensors. Human insulin used in treating diabetics can now be produced on a large scale by genetic engineering.