Basic Motivation Concepts

Basic Motivation Concepts
OBJECTIVES LEARNING
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Outline the motivation process.
2. Describe Maslows need hierarchy. 3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y. 4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors. 5. List the characteristics that high achievers prefer in a job. 6. Summarize the types of goals that increase performance.
2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
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O B J E C T I V E S (contd) LEARNING
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

7. State the impact of underrewarding employees.
8. Clarify key relationships in expectancy theory. 9. Explain how the contemporary theories of motivation complement each other.
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Defining Motivation
Motivation The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. Key Elements 1. Intensity: how hard a person tries 2. Direction: toward beneficial goal 3. Persistence: how long a person tries
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Motivation
Defined as the psychological forces within a person that determine:
1) direction of behavior in an organization; 2) the effort or how hard people work; 3) the persistence displayed in meeting goals.
Intrinsic Motivation: behavior performed for its own sake.
Motivation comes from performing the work.
Extrinsic Motivation: behavior performed to acquire

rewards.
Motivation source is the consequence of an action.
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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Needs
Unfulfilled
physiological and psychological desires of an
individual.
Explain Create Good
workplace behavior and attitudes. tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.
managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needsphysiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 66
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
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Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslows hierarchy of human needs.
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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.
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Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.
Hygiene Factors
Factorssuch as company policy and administration, supervision, and salarythat, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.
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Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction
Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
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Herzbergs two-factor theory.
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ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

ERG Theory There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
Core Needs Existence: provision of basic material requirements. Relatedness: desire for relationships. Growth: desire for personal development.
Concepts:
More than one need can be operative at the same time. If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lowerlevel need increases.
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Alderfers ERG
Need Level
Highest
Description
Examples
Growth Relatedness
Self-development, Worker continually creative work improves skills
Interpersonal relations, feelings

Food, water, shelter
Good relations, feedback

Basic pay level to buy items
Lowest
Existence
After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
David McClellands Theory of Needs

People acquire needs through their life experiences.
Need for Achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
Need for Affiliation

The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.
Need for Power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.
nPow
nAch
nAff
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)

Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
People high in (nAch) prefer work that:

Involves individual responsibility for results. Involves achievable but challenging goals. Provides feedback on performance.
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Need for Power (nPower)

Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people. Personal power versus social power.
People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

Involves control over other persons. Has an impact on people and events. Brings public recognition and attention.
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Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons.
People high in (nAff) prefer work that:

Involves interpersonal relationships. Provides for companionship Brings social approval.
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.
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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

What are the process theories of motivation? Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:
Set specific goals.
Set challenging goals.

Build goal acceptance and commitment. Clarify goal priorities. Provide feedback on goal accomplishment. Reward goal accomplishment.
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Goal-Setting Theory The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. Factors influencing the goalsperformance relationship: Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture. Self-Efficacy The individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating. Motivational effects of task goals: Provide direction to people in their work. Clarify performance expectations. Establish a frame of reference for feedback. Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management. Goal-setting theory Participation in goal setting

unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting. management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation. when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.
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Reinforcement Theory
The assumption that behavior is a function of its consequences.
Concepts: Behavior is environmentally caused. Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences. Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior. Law of effect impact of type of consequence on future behavior. Operant conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner. Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.
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Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on

Law of contingent reinforcement
Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited.

Law of immediate reinforcement
More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.
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Job Design Theory

Job Characteristics Model Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.
Characteristics: 1. Skill variety 2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy 5. Feedback
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Job Design Theory (contd)

Job Characteristics Model
Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:
Knowledge of results Meaningfulness of work Personal feelings of responsibility for results
Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.
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Skill Variety The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities.
Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.
Computing a Motivating Potential Score

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive. Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
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Social Information Processing (SIP) Model The fact that people respond to their jobs as they perceive them rather than to the objective jobs themselves. Concept: Employee attitudes and behaviors are responses to social cues by others.
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Social Information Processing Model (SIP)

Concepts of the SIP Model
Employees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response to the social cues provided by others (e.g., coworkers) with whom they have contact. Employees perception of the characteristics of their jobs is as important as the actual characteristics of their jobs.
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Equity Theory
Equity Theory Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside Self-outside Other-inside Other-outside
Equity Theory
Considers workers perceptions of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs.
Adams notes it is the relative rather than the absolute level of outcomes a person receives. The Outcome/input ratio is compared by worker with another person called a referent. The referent is perceived as similar to the worker. Equity exists when a person perceives their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referents ratio. If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also give more inputs to achieve equity.
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Equity Theory
Figure 12.3 Condition Person Referent Example
Worker contributes more inputs but also gets more outputs than referent Worker contributes more inputs but also gets the same outputs as referent Worker contributes same inputs but also gets more outputs than referent
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Equity
Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs
Underpayment Equity
Outcomes < Outcomes Inputs Inputs
Overpayment Equity
Outcomes > Outcomes Inputs Inputs
Inequity
Inequity exists when workers outcome/input ratio is not equal to referent. Underpayment inequity: ratio is less than the referent. Worker feels they are not getting the outcomes they should given inputs. Overpayment inequity: ratio is higher than the referent. Worker feels they are getting more outcomes then they should given inputs. Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in workers to restore equity. In underpayment, workers reduce input levels to correct. Overpayment, worker can change the referent to adjust. If inequity persists, worker will often leave the firm.
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Equity Theory (contd)
Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off) 2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others 5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
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Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work. 3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees

Distributive Justice Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.
Procedural Justice The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.
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Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom) The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Key expectancy theory variables: Expectancy belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance. Instrumentality belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards. Valence value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.
Expectancy Theory Relationships

EffortPerformance Relationship
The probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
PerformanceReward Relationship
The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship

The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individuals goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.
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Figure 14.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation.
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Expectancy theory
Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
M=ExIxV
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.
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Managerial implications of expectancy theory

To maximize expectancy, managers should:
Select workers with ability. Train workers to use ability. Support work efforts.
Clarify performance goals.
To maximize instrumentality, managers should:

Clarify psychological contracts. Communicate performance-outcome possibilities. Identify rewards that are contingent on performance.
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Managerial implications of expectancy theory

To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:
Identify individual needs. Adjust rewards to match individual needs.
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Basic Motivation Concepts

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Basic Motivation Concepts

AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Intrinsic Motivation: behavior performed for its own sake.

Motivation comes from performing the work.

Extrinsic Motivation: behavior performed to acquire

Motivation source is the consequence of an action.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

physiological and psychological desires of an

managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslows hierarchy of human needs.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Herzbergs two-factor theory.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Self-development, Worker continually creative work improves skills

Interpersonal relations, feelings

Good relations, feedback

David McClellands Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement

Need for Affiliation

Need for Power

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

Acquired needs theory

Need for Achievement (nAch)

People high in (nAch) prefer work that:

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

Acquired needs theory

Need for Power (nPower)

People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

Acquired needs theory

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

People high in (nAff) prefer work that:

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Set challenging goals.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

Operant conditioning strategies:

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on