As part of the global biosphere, we are ultimately dependent on other living organisms for virtually all aspects of our

lives.

Food as a Biological Resource There are 1000's of edible plants and animals, but only a few supply almost all human needs. About a dozen grasses, 3 root crops, twenty or so fruits and vegetables, six mammals, two fowl, and a few fish species Only 20 different species of plants supply 80% of the worlds food supply. Three kinds of plants (maize or corn, wheat, and rice) constitute 65% of the worlds food supply. Meat production is dominated by a few terrestrial species: poultry, sheep and goats, pigs, and cattle. Freshwater and ocean fisheries are also an important source of human food

Different types of crops

Cereals like rice, wheat, maize, millets, sorghum etc. provide us carbohydrates. Pulses like peas, beans, grams, lentils etc. provide us proteins. Oil seeds like ground nut, sesame, castor, mustard, linseed, sunflower etc. provide us fats. Vegetables, spices and fruits provide us vitamins and minerals along with small amounts of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Fodder crops like berseem, oats or sudan grass are grown as food for livestock.

Different crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and duration of sunlight (photoperiods). Kharif crops :- are crops grown during the rainy season from June to October like paddy, soyabean, maize, pigeon pea, green gram, black gram, cotton etc. Rabi crops :- are crops grown during winter season from November to April like wheat, gram, peas, mustard, linseed etc.

Improvement in crop yield Crop yield can be improved by three main activities. They are : i) Crop variety improvement ii) Crop production improvement iii) Crop protection management Crop variety improvement Crop variety improvement is done by selecting good varieties of crops. This is done by hybridisation. Hybridisation is the crossing between genetically dissimalar plants to obtain crops having useful characteristics like disease resistance, good quality and high yields. Hybridisation may be intervarietal (between different varieties, interspecific (between different species of the same genus) or intergeneric (between different genera). Another way of improving crop variety is by introducing a gene to obtain the desired characteristic. This produces genetically modified crops.

Crop variety improvement is done for the following Higher yield :- To increase productivity of crop per acre. Biotic and abiotic resistance :- To increase resistance of crops to biotic factors like insects, diseases etc. and abiotic factors like draught, salinity, heat, cold etc. Change in maturity duration :- To reduce the duration between sowing and harvesting so that farmers can grow multiple crops during the year. Wider adaptibility :- To grow crops in different climatic conditions. Desirable agronomic characters :- Characters like tallness and more branching are useful for fodder crops and dwarfness (shortness) is desirable for cereal crops.

Crop production management includes i) Nutrient management ii) Irrigation iii) Cropping management Nutrient management : Plants get nutrients from air, water and soil. There are sixteen nutrients required by plants for their proper growth. Air supplies oxygen and carbon dioxide, water supplies hydrogen and the remaining thirteen nutrients are obtained from the soil. Among the sixteen nutrients required by plants, six are required in large quantities and are called macro nutrients. The macro nutrients are :- nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur. The other seven are required in small quantities and are called micro nutrients. Soil can be enriched by supplying nutrients in the form of manures and fertilizers. The micro nutrients are :- iron, magnesium, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and chlorine.

 Manure is prepared by the decomposition of plant and animal waste. It contains organic matter and nutrients. It helps to increase soil fertility. It also helps to reduce use of fertilizers and recycle farm waste and protects the environment. There are two main types of manures. They are compost and green manure. Compost is prepared by the decomposition of plant and animal waste in compost pits. Compost prepared by using earthworms is called vermi-compost. Compost is rich in organic matter and nutrients. Green manure Before sowing seeds in fields, some green plants like sun hemp, gaur etc. are mixed in the soil by ploughing. These plants turn into green manure which makes the soil rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. Fertilizers are chemical substances made commercially. They supply nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and helps to increase crop yield. Fertilizers should be used only in required amounts. Excessive use of fertilizers can reduce soil fertility and also cause water pollution.

Irrigation The supply of water to the crops is called irrigation. Water is necessary for the proper growth of plants and helps to increase crop yield. Different kinds if irrigation systems are used to supply water to agricultural land. They are wells, canals, rivers, tanks, check dams etc. Wells :- There are two types of wells called dug wells and tube wells. In dug wells water is collected from water bearing strata. In tube wells water is collected from deeper strata. Canals :- In this system, canals receive water from reservoirs or rivers and distributes it to fields. River lift systems :- In this system water is lifted from rivers to irrigate fields close to rivers. Tanks :- These are small storage reservoirs which supply water to fields. Check dams :- These are used to stop rain water from flowing away and helps to increase groundwater levels and reduce soil erosion.

Cropping patterns Different ways of growing crops are used for maximum benefit. These include mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation. Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field. Eg :- wheat + gram, wheat + mustard, groundnut + sunflower etc. This reduces the risk even if one crop fails. Inter-cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field in alternate rows. Eg :- maize + soya bean, millet + cow pea etc. Crops with different nutrient requirements are selected. This helps in better use of nutrients and prevents spreading of diseases to all plants of the same crop. Crop rotation is growing different crops in the same field in succession. Growing leguminous crops after growing cereal crops helps to increase soil fertility. If crop rotation is done properly, two or three crops can be grown in a year profitably.

Crop protection management Crops in the field are damaged by weeds, insect pests and deases. Weeds are unwanted plants which grow in the field. Eg :Xanthium, Parthenium, Cyperinus rotundus etc. They compete with the crop for food, space and sunlight and use nutrients and reduce crop yield. Insect pests cause damage to the root, stem and leaves, suck cell sap and bore into stems and fruits. They can reduce crop yield. Diseases in plants are caused by pathogens like virus, bacteria and fungi and reduces crop yield. Weeds, insect pests and diseases can be controlled by using chemicals like weedicides, pesticides, fungicides etc. They are sprayed on crop plants or used for treating seeds and soil. Since these chemicals are poisionous, excessive use of these chemicals can cause environmental pollution.

Storage of grains

The factors responsible for the damage and loss of grains are biotic factors like bacteria, fungi, insects, rodents etc. and abiotic factors like moisture and temperature in the place of storage. Before storage, the grains are cleaned and dried in sunlight to remove moisture and the storage places are fumigated to kill pests.

Animal husbandry is the scientific management of animal livetock including their feeding, breeding and disease control. Animal farming includes cattle, sheep, goat, poultry and fish farming. Cattle farming is done for two main purposes. They are for milk production and farm labour. Milk producing females are called milch animals and those used for farm labour are called draught animals. Milk production depends on the duration of the lactation period the period of milk production after the birth of the calf. Milk production can be increased by increasing the lactation period. Foreign breeds like Jersy and Brown Swiss have long lactation periods and local breeds like Red Sindhi and Sahiwal are resistant to diseases. They can be cross-bred to get animals with both the qualities.

 Cattle shelter should be clean and well ventilated with sloping floors for easy cleaning. Cattle feed should include roughage containing mainly fibre and concentrates containing protein and other nutrients.

Cattle disease are caused by parasites, bacteria and virus. External parasites cause skin diseases. Internal parasites like worms affect stomach and intestine and flukes damage the liver. Vaccinations are given to protect from viral and bacterial diseases.

Poultry farming is done for egg production and chicken meat. Improved poultry breeds are developed to produce layers for eggs and broilers for meat. Cross-breeding between Indian varieties like Aseel and foreign varieties like Leghorn is done to develop new varieties. For good production of poultry birds they are given proper nutrition and kept in hygienic conditions and proper temperature conditions. Broiler chickens are fed with vitamin, protein and fat rich feed for better growth. Poultry fowls are affected by diseases caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and parasites. They are protected from diseases by proper sanitation, spraying disinfectants and vaccination.

Fish is a source of animal protein in our food. There are two ways of obtaining fish. They are from natural sources called capture fishing and from fish farming called culture fishery. The water source of fishes can be sea water (marine) or fresh water like rivers, ponds, lakes etc. Marine fisheries The popular marine fish varieties are pomphret, mackerel, tuna, sardines etc. They are caught by fishing nets from boats. Some marine fishes are farmed in sea water. These include prawns, mullets, perl spots, mussels, oysters etc. We get pearls from oysters. Inland fisheries Culture fishery is done in freshwater and brackish water where sea water and fresh water mix together. Sometimes fish culture is done in combination with paddy crop in the field. This is called composite fish culture. The common fishes in inland fish farms are rohu, catla, mrigal, grass carp, silver carp, common carp etc.

Bee-keeping is done to obtain honey and wax. Honey is used as a source of energy and also has medicinal uses. Wax is used in medicinal preparations and for making polishes. The local varieties of bees used for honey production are the Indian bee, Rock bee and Little bee. An Italian variety of bee is also being used for large scale production of honey. The bees collect nectar from flowers and is convert it into honey in the bee hives. Bees are artificially grown in apiaries and the honey is extracted by machine called honey extractors.

Hunger and adequate nutrition

Currently, at least 800 million people do not eat enough every day for a normal healthy life. A standard level for inadequate nutrition (malnutrition) is difficult to define and dependent on age, gender, and activity level. The typical male requires 2,700 and the typical female requires 2,000 calories a day in addition to vitamins and minerals. This amount of calories and nutrition allow people to carry out productive work. Many people do not consume enough to live and work actively.

Feeding the World Today Agricultural land is being plowed under for development. If the entire world followed the American diet, less than half the current human population could be fed Typical American gets 25-30% of Calories from animal sources (meat/cheese) Careful management of the worlds food supply (perfect distribution and only vegetarian diets) might just barely feed the current population (40% of food lost to spoilage/rats/pests or thown away as leftovers) Currently about 1.5 billion hectares cultivated (=> 1/4 hectare/ person) 1 square kilometer = 100 hectares (1 hectare = 10,000 square meters) 1 hectare about 2.5 acres, 1 square mile = 260 hectares = 640 acres Total land available for cultivation? Estimates vary between 2 and 4 billion hectares

Need for increasing food production Our population is more than one billion and it is still growing. We will need more than a billion tonnes of grain every year to feed this growing population. Since increasing the area of land for cultivation is limited, it is necessary to increase the production efficiency of crops and livestock. The production efficiency of crops and livestock can be increased by adopting scientific management practices to improve crop yield, undertaking mixed farming, intercropping, and integrated farming practices like combining agriculture with livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee-keeping etc.

Food for the Future Maintaining animal product-based diets and providing adequate food for all will require more food (see next slide) A growing world population will require more food. If exponential increase in population continues, no way to feed everyone adequately World production could be increased though two basic strategies: Increase the amount of land in cultivation Increase the yield per unit of land under cultivation. Many projections ignore the detrimental and nonsustainable aspects of modern agriculture Land is being degraded, so even current yields will be hard to maintain Some optimistic (cornucopians) estimate 50 billion people could be fed; assumptions going into these estimates are clearly wrong. However, in past yields have GREATLY increased, much more that Neo-Malthusians thought possible. With Genetic Modification (GM) foods, etc. will new large increases will be possible?

Food Security
Having access to adequate food Carryover stocks Leftover grains Decreasing 2006: lower grain harvest than previous two years

Food Security
Consumption of animal products increasing Environmental impacts? China Produces most wheat Largest importer of wheat

World Food Problems

U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization 852 million lack adequate food Developing countries Undernutrition Lack of calories WHO estimate 182 million children under 5

World Food Problems

Malnutrition
Lack of calories nutrients 3 billion worldwide or

Overnutrition
Too many calories Animal saturated sugar, salt United States fats,

Population and World Hunger

86 countries
Low income Food deficient

Food insecurity
Chronic hunger Malnutrition

Food Insecurity

World Hunger
Causes
Population growth Unequal food distribution Poverty

Solutions
Control population Promote economic development

World Grain Production

1970-2006
Grain production doubled Grain per person did not increase

Poverty
Most common cause of undernutrition and malnutrition More common in rural areas Difficult problem to solve

Industrialized Agriculture
Modern agricultural methods Developed countries Inputs
Capital Energy Chemicals

High yields

Subsistence Agriculture
Traditional agricultural methods Developing countries Food for family Inputs
Labor Land

Shifting Cultivation
Subsistence agriculture Grow crops, then leave land alone Slash-and-burn agriculture
Clear forest Grow crops Soil loses productivity quickly

Supports small populations

Nomadic Herding
Subsistence agriculture Land not suitable for crops Livestock continually move

Intercropping
Subsistence agriculture Variety of crops in same field Polyculture Plants mature at different times Different crops harvested throughout the year

Agricultural Challenges
Loss of prime farmland Loss of domesticated varieties Improving yields Curbing environmental impacts

Loss of Agricultural Land

More than 400,000 acres lost per year in U.S. Suburban sprawl Conservation easements
1996 Farm Bill Protect farmland 30+ years

Loss of Domestic Varieties

Farmers using fewer varieties of plants and animals Modern methods Uniformity Maximum production Loss of genetic diversity Save germplasm Tissues May need later

Increasing Crop Yields

Food production has increased Green revolution
Mid-20th century Modern methods High-yield varieties Chemicals

High-Yield Varieties
Done with breeding and biotechnology

Green Revolution
Benefits
Mexico increased wheat production Indonesia self-sufficient in rice

Problems
Developing countries dependent on chemicals, machinery High energy costs Too many chemicals

Increasing Crop Yields

Demand for grains will increase Cant increase amount of land Yields can only increase so much Genetic engineering could help Developing countries will need better farming methods

Increasing Livestock Yields

Hormones Promote faster growth European Union limits imports of hormonetreated beef: why? Antibiotics Animals grow larger (4 5%) Resistant bacteria WHO wants them eliminated U.S. still using

Environmental Impacts
Air, water pollution Feedlot agriculture is the norm

Environmental Impacts
Pesticides
Resistance Farmers use more Residues on food

Land degradation
Loss of productivity Salinization

Habitat fragmentation

Environmental Impacts

Looking Towards The Future

Food requirements have been met Environmental problems increasing More food will be needed Vicious circle???

Sustainable Agriculture
Maintains soil productivity: conservation techniques Healthy ecological balance Minimal long-term impacts Natural fertilizers

Sustainable Agriculture
Less chemicals and antibiotics Water and energy conservation Diverse crops

Sustainable Agriculture
Organic agriculture
No non-natural chemicals No genetic engineering

View the farm as an agroecosystem Second green revolution!

Genetic Engineering
Move genes from one species to another Could improve agriculture

Potential Benefits of GM Crops

Decrease nutritional deficiencies worldwide: Golden Rice Decreased use of pesticides Heartier plants Feed the world More productive farm animals Better animal vaccines

Potential Drawbacks of GM Crops

Cross-pollination with native species Widespread crop failure Food allergies Long-term impacts unknown

Controlling Agricultural Pests

Pest: interferes with human welfare or activities Pesticides Help control pests Insecticides Herbicides Fungicides Rodenticides

Pesticides
Perfect pesticide Narrow-spectrum Kills only intended organism Breaks down rapidly Stays where applied Doesnt exist! Broad-spectrum Kills variety of organisms Many used today

Benefits of Pesticides
Quick, effective control Protect crops Save lives

Problems With Pesticides

Genetic resistance
520 insect species resistant 84 weed species resistant

Bioaccumulation Biomagnification

Problems With Pesticides

Affect non-target species New pests may emerge

Problems With Pesticides

Dont stay put Pollute water, soil, air 14 million in U.S. have drinking water with traces of herbicides

Alternatives to Pesticides
Biological controls
Use naturally occurring organisms

Pheromones Hormones Genetics Irradiation

Alternatives to Pesticides

Integrated Pest Management

Combination of control methods Keep crop loss to economically tolerable level Sustainable agriculture Management vs. eradication Education critical On the increase

Case Study: DDT and the Bald Eagle

1963: 417 pairs left in lower 48 states Three reasons the population dropped?

Case Study: DDT and the Bald Eagle

1972: DDT banned Bald Eagle Protection Act Endangered Species Act Conservation efforts 2007: more than 7000 nesting pairs in lower 48 Removed from Threatened List