GOOD MORNING

Presented by Dr Isha Sharma P.G Ist year

 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ORTHODONTIC BRACKETS

IMPRESSION MATERIALS
GYPSUM PRODUCTS DENTAL CEMENTS USED IN ORTHODONTICS

ORTHODONTIC ADHESIVES AND RESINS

ELASTOMERIC LIGATURES AND CHAINS ACRYLIC RESIN

REFERENCES

Introduction
The rapid advancement seen in the field of orthodontics has been primarily due to improvement in the field of material sciences.

The better understanding of biologic problems and advancement in orthodontic materials has lead to improved appliance design and treatment strategies.

Classification of orthodontic Materials

Arch wire materials
Bracket and attachment materials Auxiliary force delivery system

Impression materials
Luting materials Sealents and adhesion promoters

Etching /conditioning and crystal growth systems

Bonding materials

BRACKETS

EVOLUTION OF BRACKETS
Bandelette plates-by Pierre Fauchard..
They are crude metal plates that were ligated to

the teeth with brass or silver ligature wire.

In the late 1900s, found out if a rigid framework

is tied to teeth, the arch could be expanded as dictated by the appliance

THE E-ARCH APPLIANCE (1900)

The first fixed appliance designed by Angle Used for tipping teeth into new aligned position Used stationary anchorage Expanded the arch-traction screw No individual tooth control possible

PIN AND TUBE APPLIANCE (1910)

E.H.ANGLE

Most of the teeth were banded

.
Vertical tubes were soldered

to the bands with their long axis parallel to the long axis of the crown.
Rotational movements were

difficult to obtain .

RIBBON ARCH APPLIANCE (1915)

The first bracket devised

in 1915 by angle
Big step in evolution of brackets Rotational movements Bucco-lingual and inciso-gingival movements Distal Tipping Of Buccal Segment not possible

Mesiodistal axial movement not possible

Arch wire didnt provide stabilization

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Bracket and attachment materials

Bracket It is precisely fabricated orthodontic

attachment made of metal ,plastic or ceramic material,which can be bonded to a tooth or welded to a band. It carry a horizontal or vertical channel of standard size called a slot. The base of the bracket usually contains a welded mesh or other retentive structures to increase bond stength.
(Glossory of orthodontic terms)

 The term is used only when referring to those devices that are open in one side -vertical or horizontal

The term bracket came to be in use in orthodontics

when Dr. Angle introduced the ribbon arch appliance

BASED ON MATERIALS

A) METAL BRACKETS 1) Stainless steel brackets 2) Gold-coated brackets 3) Platinum-coated brackets 4) Titanium brackets B) PLASTIC BRACKETS 1) Polycarbonate brackets 2) Polyurethane-composite brackets 3) Thermoplastic-polyurethane brackets C) CERAMIC BRACKETS 1) Monocrystalline alumina 2) Polycrystalline alumina 3) Polycrystalline Zirconia
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Metal brackets
Metal brackets rely on mechanical retention for

bonding and mesh gauze is the conventional method of providing retention. The use of small less noticeable metal bases help to avoid gingival irritation. Corrosion of metal brackets may be a problem and black and green stain have appeared with bonded stainless steel attachment.

 Crevice corrosion of metal arising in areas of poor

bonding may result from type of stainless steel used.

STAINLESS STEEL BRACKETS

STAINLESS STEEL COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

Brackets made of stainless steel are alloys formulated according to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) in the austenitic classes 303, 304, 316, and 317.

According to this classification, as the number increases, more alloying metals are added to the iron, while its carbon content is lowered.

16

 The steels, which have AISI numbers beginning with the numeral 3, are all austenitic; the higher the number, the less non-ferrous the alloy. The letter L signifies lower carbon content.

303 has 17-19% Cr, 8-10% Ni and 0.6% Mo 316 has 16-18% Cr, 10-14%Ni, 2% Mn and 0.08% C

 316L has 16-18% Cr, 10-14% Ni, 2.5% Mo

and0.02% C SAF 2205 has 22% Cr, 5.5% Ni, 3% Mn, and 0.03% C

The 2205 stainless steel alloy has a duplex microstructure

consisting of austenitic and delta-ferritic phases and is harder and demonstrated less crevice corrosion than 316L alloy. (Oshida & Moore)

Steels with a lower AISI number starting with 3 are rather soft and easier to mill, but their corrosion resistance is low
Relatively high Chromium content in SS favours the stability of BCC unit cells of ferrite. Ni, Cu, Mn favours an FCC structure of austenite

19

 Other additives are,

Silicon (Si) if kept at lower concentration, improves resistance to oxidation and carburization at

higher temperatures & to corrosion

Sulfur (S) 0.015% sulfur content allows easy

machining of wrought parts

 Phosphorus (P) allows use of a lower temperature for sintering

Manganese (Mn) used as a replacement for nickel

to stabilize austenite

Gold-plated stainless steel braces

These braces are often employed for patients allergic to nickel (a basic and important component of stainless steel), but may also be chosen because some people simply prefer the look of gold over the traditional silver-coloured braces.

PLATINUM COATED BRACKETS

Five times the abrasion resistance of gold.
A smoother, harder surface than stainless steel For reduced friction and improved sliding mechanics is achieved.

TITANIUM BRACKETS
It is the latest metal to be used for the manufacture of brackets.
It is more biocompatable and allows superior finish there by decreasing friction. They are ideal for use in patient with nickel hypersensitivity.

Low thermal conductivity

 Increased retention rough surface

Single piece- no soldering joints- nickel free Corrosion resistant

They are more expensive than stainless steel brackets.

NICKEL-FREE BRACKETS
Laser structured bracket base

for retention

26

 Made of Cobalt chromium (CoCr) dental alloy

One-piece construction (without solder) by metal

injection molding technique

Laser structured bracket base for retention

Plastic brackets
Cohen and Silverman (IPB brackets) manufactured by GAC in 1963.

Plastic attachment are made of polycarbonate and are used mainly for esthetic reason. Pure plastic brackets lack strength to resist distortion and breakage,wire slot wear [which leads to loss of tooth control],uptake of water,discoloration,and need

for compatible bonding resin Such plastic brackets may be usefull in minimal force situation and for treatment for short duration ,particularly in adults.

DISADVANTAGES BRACKETS

OF

POLYCARBONATE

Polycarbonate brackets undergo creep deformation when transferring torque loads generated by arch wires to teeth. Discoloration of first generation unfilled polycarbonate brackets during clinical aging. They absorb water to a slight extent and tend to weaken in the course of about one year.

29

 Various reinforced polycarbonate brackets were,

Polymer fiber reinforced Fiberglass reinforced

Ceramic reinforced
Metal slot reinforced Metal slot and ceramic reinforced

CERAMIC BRACKETS
Ceramic orthodontic brackets are machined from

monocrystalline or polycrystalline aluminium oxide.

Such bracket should combine the estheics of plastic

and the reliability of metal brackets

Ceramic brackets bond to enamel by two different

mechanism:

1. Mechanical retention via indentation and undercut in the base

2. Chemical bonding by means of a silane coupling agent.

TYPES OF CERAMIC BRACKETS

Monocrystalline (Sapphire) Polycrystalline Alumina Polycrystalline Zirconia-Yttrium oxide Partially Stabilised Zirconia

MANUFACTURING METHODS FOR CERAMIC BRACKETS

MONOCRYSTALLINE (SAPPHIRE) BRACKETS

The first step in the manufacture of the single-crystal

brackets is the slow cooling of the molten high-purity aluminium oxide under controlled conditions from temperatures above 2100C.

 The resulting bulk single crystal alumina rod or bar form is then milled into brackets using diamond cutting, Nd: YAG lasers, or ultrasonic cutting.
The single-crystal brackets are also subsequently heat treated to remove surface imperfections and stresses created by the milling process.

POLYCRYSTALLINE ALUMINA BRACKETS

These brackets are manufactured by first combining a suitable binder with aluminium oxide particles (average of 0.3m size) so that this mixture can be molded into the shape of a bracket.
This molded mixture is then heated (fired) at temperatures in excess of 1800C to burn out the binder and achieve sintering of the particles.
36

 Diamond cutting tools are then used to machine the slot dimensions.
Heat treatment is subsequently performed to relieve the stresses caused by the cutting and to remove surface imperfections resulting from the manufacturing processes. Structural imperfections at the grain boundaries or trace amounts of sintering aids can serve as sites of crack initiation under stress.

37

POLYCRYSTALLINE ZIRCONIA BRACKETS

The polycrystalline zirconia brackets are manufactured by impression molding, followed by hot isostatic pressing. Yttrium oxide-partially stabilized zirconia (YPSZ) can be obtained in bulk form by sintering (without pressure up to 95% of the theoretical density) a mixture of ultrafine powder (average starting particle size of 0.2m) and 5wt% Yttrium oxide.

 A polycrystalline microstructure with an average grain size of about 0.5m is obtained, and hot isostatic pressing is subsequently employed to remove residual porosity with limited additional grain growth

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE CERAMIC BRACKETS

MONOCRYSTALLINE ALUMINA
1) Inspire 2) Starfire TMB

POLYCRYSTALLINE ALUMINA
1) Allure 2) Clarity 3) Fascination 4) Intrigue 5) 20/20 6) Lumina 7) Mxi 8) Signature 9) Virage 10) CeramaFlex (with polycarbonate base) 11) InVu

POLYCRYSTALLINE ZIRCONIA
1) Hi-Brace

40

MONOCRYSTALLINE CERAMIC BRACKET Starfire Inspire

POLYCRYSTALLINE ALUMINA CERAMIC BRACKETS

MXi (TP ORTHODONTICS)

41

POLYCRYSTALLINE ALUMINA CERAMIC BRACKETS Allure

(GAC)

20/40
(American Orthodontics)

CLARITY

(3M UNITEK)

Micro-crystalline bonding surface

42

Metal-Reinforced Ceramic Brackets

Clarity
43

 These are in vogue because of their possible reduction

in enamel damage during debonding.

The bracket with metal {stainless steel} slot also

decrease the friction values which are comparable to other stainless steel brackets.

IMPRESSION MATERIALS

DEFINITION
Any substance or combination of substance used for making an impression or negative reproduction.

GPT-8

Materials used to produce accurate replicas should

fulfill the following criteria to obtain an accurate impression They should be fluid enough to adapt to the oral tissue. Should be viscous enough to be contained in the tray that is seated in the mouth. They should transform into rubbery or rigid solid in the mouth.

 Ideally total setting time should be less than 7 mins.

The set impression should not distort or tear when

removed from mouth.

Impression made from these material should be

dimensionally stable.
Should be biocompatible.

Alginate
Algin - a peculiar mucous extract yielded by Algae

(brown seaweed).
Algin linear polymer with numerous carboxylic

acid groups named it as anhydro beta - manuronic

acid ( alginic acid ).

 Alginic acid is a copolymer of anhydro - beta D mannuronic acid & anhydro - beta - d guluronic acid.

In England, 40 yrs later, S. William Wilding received the patent for alginate as impression material.

Composition
Hydro gel former To dissolve in water and react with calcium ion Provides Ca ions & react with potassium alginate to form insoluble calcium alginate gel

Potassium alginate

15 18 g %

Calcium sulphate dihydrate

14 16 g %

Potassium sulphates , potassium zinc fluoride , potassium titanium fluoride , silicates or borates

Accelarator Counteract the inhibiting effect of hydro colloid gels on setting of gypsum and give high quality surface to dies Retarder React with preferentially with Ca ions to provide working time before gelation

3 10 g %

Sodium phosphates

2g%

Diatomaceous earth or silicate powder Organic glycols

Controls the consistency of the mixed alginate & flexibility of set material Make the powder dustless

56 60 g %

small Trace

Winter green and peppermint , anise

Pigments

To produce a pleasant taste

To provide colours

Trace

Disinfectants (quaternary ammonium salts & chlorhexidine )

Sodium silico fluoride

To help in disinfection of viable organism Controls the pH Act as a filler & has some influence on the setting time & physical properties of gel

12g%

4g%

Zinc oxide

4g%

SETTING REACTION:
SOL GEL reaction

Two main reactions occurs during setting:

i) 2 Na3 PO4 (Retarder) + 3 Ca SO4 (Reactor) Ca Alginate + Na2 SO4 Ca3 (PO4)2 + 3 Na2 SO4

(Sodium phosphate) (Calcium sulphate)

ii) Sodium Alginate + Ca SO4 + H2O

(Powder)

(Reactor)

(Gel)

Properties:
Strength

Time dependent. Greater at higher rate of loading. (Impression to be removed with a Snap) Compressive strength: 5000 to 9000 g/cm2 Tear strength : 380 to 700 g/cm2
Factors affecting strength:

Water/Powder ratio-too much or little water reduces gel strength Mixing time.-over and under mixing reduce strength

Flexibility It is about 11-15% at a stress of 1000gm/cm2 Some of the hard set material have lower values{3-8%} Lower water-powder ratio Lower flexibility. Permanent Deformation (1.2%) Reduced by bulk of material. (5mm between tray and tissues)

Manipulation:
Dispensing Mixing Loading the tray Perforated tray. Rim lock trays. Wisp of cotton wool secured to the tray. Adhesives: Methylcellulose. Taking Impression

Dimensional stability In air loss of water shrinks. In water absorbs water swells. Storage: in 100% relative humidity for 1 hr. Should be poured immediately.

Shelf life Deteriorates at elevated temp.

Agar
( elastic reversible hydrocolloids ) Introduced by Alphous poller of Vienna in 1925 & Adopted commercially as Dentacol in 1928

It was the first successful elastic impression material

Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

Agar is an organic hydrophilic colloid extracted from certainSeaweed

It is a sulphuric ester of a linear polymer of

galactose.
Though highly accurate, it has been largely

replaced by alginate hydrocolloids and rubber impression material.

Composition
Agar Brush heap structure 13 17 %

Borates
Sulphates Wax, hard (diatomaceous earth, clay silica, wax, rubber, similar inert powder )

Strength
Gypsum hardener

0.2 - 0.5 %
1.0 2.0 %

Filler( affect the strength / viscosity/rigidity )

0.5 1.0 %

Thixotropic materials Thymol Glycerin Pigments & flavours Water

Thickners Bactericide Plasticizer

0.3 0.5 %

Reaction medium

Balance (85.5 % )

Gelation process
The setting of the reversible hydrocolloid often called

as gelation.
It is solidification process.

The physical change from sol. to gel or vice versa is induced by the temperature change.

Gel

70*c 100*c

sol

37*c 50*c

gel

Heating

cooling

Sol

gel

Gel is heated at a higher temperature liquefaction temperature ( 70*c 100*c ) to return to sol condition. It transforms to gel at temperature between 37*c 50*c ( gelation temperature ).

Gelation temperature :
Gelation temperature ----------

37*c

It is a temperature at which sol converts into gel i.

e. temperature decreases from high degree to low

degree.

 Gelation temperature depends on the various factors :

1. Molecular weight

2. Purity of agar
3. Ratio of agar to other ingredients

Involves 3 step process :

Manipulation

Advanced preparation of the material

Preparation immediately before making

the impression Making impression

Special equipments
chamber conditioning unit
liquefy at 100C for 10 minute - converts gel to sol

store at 65C-68*C

Tempering section- 46*C for 3-10min

A gauze pad placed over top of the tray material.

Temper at 46*c for 3 10 min; this is done to reduce the temprature so that it can be tolerated by the sensitive oral tissues.

Making an impression
Syringe material directly taken from storage compartment & applied to cavities. Prevent entrapment of air bubbles. Tray material is placed immediately in mouth to form bulk of impression.

Acceleration of gelation :

By circulating cool water approx. 18*c 21*c

through tray for 3 5 min. This converts sol to

gel.
TRAYS WATER COOLED RIM LOCK TRAYS

Removal of the impression :

Necessary to remove with a jerk

Indications :

Widely used at present for cast duplication

For full mouth impression without deep undercuts

As tissue conditioner Was used for crown & bridge before the elastomers

Rubber impression materials

 Rubber impression materials :

In addition to the hydrocolloid gels, a group of

rubber like elastic impression materials exists known as elastomers.

ADA specification No 19 identifies these materials as nonaqueous elastomeric dental impression materials.

Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 Elastomeric material consists of a large molecules or polymers that are joined by a small amount of cross linking.
The cross linking ties the coiled polymer chains together at certain points. To form a 3 D network referred as gel.

 Chemically, there are 4 kinds of dental elastomers used as impression materials: - Polysulfide

Condensation polymerizing silicone Addition polymerizing silicone Polyether

Each type is further divided into 4 viscosity classes Light body

Medium or regular body Heavy body Putty

Polysulfide impression material

 Polysulfide impression material :

This was the first elastomeric impression material to

be introduced.
It is also known as Mercaptan or Thiokol. Supplied as;paste in collapsible tubes as base and accelerator.

Base is white colored.

Accelerator is brown or grey
Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 Chemistry and setting reaction

When the base and acceleration pastes are mixed it undergoes a chemical reaction wherby the liquid polymer sets to form a solid but highly elastic and flexible rubber like material.

The lead oxide reacts with polysulfide polymer causing:

Chain lengthening by oxidation of terminal SH

groups. Cross linking by oxidation of the pendant SH groups

 The reaction is exothermic.

Pbo2+S
HS-R-SH OR Mercaptan+leadoxide HS-R-S-S-R-SH+H2O

Polysulfide +water

 Composition : Base Paste :

Poly sulfide polymer.

Filler (lithopone and TiTO2) provide strength Plasticizer dibutyl phthalate confer viscosity to

paste. Sulfur 0.5% to enhance reaction.

 Catalyst paste Lead dioxide

Plasticizer and filler are same as base paste

Oleic or stearic acid act as retarders, which are added to control rate of setting.

During mixing, if sufficient force is applied and spatulation performed rapidly, the material will seen thinner . This phenomenon is known as pseudoplasticity

 Clinical application :

There is dimensional contraction occurring during the

polymerization requires use of custom made tray.

Immediate pouring of the model is indicated because

water is the condensation product.

It has bad odor and tendency to flow down a patients

throat promote poor patient acceptance.

Silicone Rubbers

 Silicone Rubbers :

These are available in two different chemical forms. They are condensation silicone and addition. Silicone materials.

Condensation silicone materials :

It is a condensation reaction.
Polymerization occurs as a result of cross linkage between orthoethyl silicate and the terminal hydroxy

group of dimethyl siloxane to form three dimensional network.

Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 These reactions take place at ambient temperature thus materials are called room temperature vulcanization silicones. Stannous octoate acts as the catalyst. Dimethyl siloxane+orthoethyl silicate

silicone rubber + ethylalcohol

 Composition :

Supplied as a base plate and a low viscosity liquid or catalyst paste. Because the silicone polymer is a liquid, colloidal silica or microsized metal oxide is added as filler to form a paste. The influence of filler on the silicone elastomer is critical particle size within the range of 5 to 10 m. Ethyl alcohol is a byproduct of the condensation setting reaction. Its subsequent evaporation accounts for the contraction that takes placed in a set silicone rubber.

 To overcome large polymerization shrinkage, a high viscosity material putty was developed. As the material has large cone of filler particles, the properties of impression material are influenced by that of the filler.
This is called as the law of mixtures.

 Clinical implications :

Immediate pouring of the model is indicated as the libation of alcohol affects the dimensional accurately. Hydrophobic nature of these materials after setting increases the difficulty of pouring a stone model with no surface imperfections. Wearing latex gloves can inhibit setting of the putty as it contains sulfur.

 Addition silicone or poly vinyl siloxane :

It is an addition reaction.In this base polymer is terminated with vinyl groups and is cross linked with

hybrid groups activated by a platinum salt catalyst. pt salt Vinyl Siloxane+Silane Siloxane Silicone Rubber
There are no reaction by products, the hydrogen gas that evolves from the set material can result in

pinpoint voids in the stone casts that are poured immediately after removing the impression from mouth.

 Composition : The base paste contains poly methyl hydrogen silixane as well as other siloxane pre polymers. The catalyst paste contains divlnyl polydimethyl siloxane and siloxane prepolymers. Clinical implications : It is extremely hydrophpbic so care should be taken while making impression and pouring wet stone. Some manufacturers add a surfuctant to make it more hydrophillic.

 Sulfur contamination from natural latex gloves

inhibits the setting of the addition silicone impression materials.

Most dimensionally stable and superior elastic

impression materials which makes possible multiple caste from same impression.

Polyether impression material

 Polyether impression material :

First elastomer developed to function as impression material.

It is a polyether based polymer that is cured by the reaction between aziridine rings, which are at the end of branched polyether molecules.
The main chain is a copolymer of ethylene oxide and tetrahydrofuran. Cross linking and setting is brought about by an aromatic sulfornate ester cross linking is by cationic polymerization via the imine end groups . Poly ether+sulfonic ester
Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

Cross linked rubber

 Composition :
Supplied as two pastes : The base contains the polyether polymer, a colloidal

silica as a filler and a plasticizer such as a glycolether or phthalate. The accelerator paste contains the alkyl aromatic sulfonate in addition to the filler and plasticizer.

 Clinical implications :
They are the stiffest of the impression materials

making it difficult to be removed from undercuts.

The sulfonic esters may cause skin reaction. To avoid

this ,mix thoroughly before making an impression and direct skin contact should be avoided.

 Exhibit least amount of distortion on from the loads

imposed on the set material.

Thus, multiple impressions can be poured. Stored

impression are to be kept in a dry, cool environment as the material absorbs water as fluids and simultaneously leaches the water soluble plasticizer.

GYPSUM PRODUCTS

GYPSUM PRODUCTS
Gypsum products are used in dentistry for the preparation

of study models for oral and maxillofacial structures and other adjuncts.
The principal constituent of dental plasters and stones is

calcium sulfate hemihydrate. (CaS04)2 H2O.

Depending on the method of calcinations, two forms

called - hemihydrate and hemihydrate exist.

The difference between and crystal size, surface

area and degree of lattice imperfection.

Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 Manufacture of dental plaster

Gypsum is ground and heated in open kettle at a temperature of 110 to 130 degree. The process is called as dry calcination Beta type of crystals are formed.

110-130*c CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4.1/2 H2O Calcium sulphate Heat Beta hemihydrate dihydrate

 Manufacturing of dental stone

Gypsum is calcined under steam pressure in an autoclave at 120-130 degree at 17 lbs /sq inch for 5-7

hrs.

120-130*c

CaSO4.2H2O Calcium sulphate dihydrate

CaSO4.1/2 H2O Alpha hemihydrate

 Type of gypsum products : Impression plaster (Type I) composed of plaster of Paris to which modifiers have been added to regulate the setting time and setting expansion. Its rarely used because it is rigid Model plaster (Type II) principally used to fill a dental flask

 Dental stone Type III) In 1930 - -gypsum was discovered and introduced in dentistry
Type III stones are preferred for casts.

4) Dental stone, high strength (type IV) Also called die stone, have high strength, hardness and minimal setting expansion. Advantage is that surface resists abrasion, where as the core of the die stone is tough and less subject to accidental breakage.

 5) Dental stone, high strength, high expansion (Type V) Have greater compressive strength than type IV dental stone. Improved strength is due to lower water : powder ratio. Higher expansion is required for the die to aid in compensating for alloy solidification shrinkage

Luting materials

ZINC PHOSPHATES

ZINC PHOSPHATES :
It is the oldest cement and it serves as a standard by which newer systems are compared. Application 1. Luting of restoration 2. High strength bases 3. Temporary restorations 4. Luting of orthodontic bands and brackets
Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 Composition :

Powder :
Zinc oxide Magnesium oxide Bismuth trioxide Silica Liquid : Phosphoric acid 45-64% - reacts with zinc oxide Aluminum phosphate 2.3% buffering action Zinc phosphate 1-9% Water controls rate of reaction

90% principal ingredient 10% aids in sintering smoothens the mix filler

 Setting reaction :

When powder and liquid are mixed, acid attacks and dissolves the outer layer of zinc oxide particles, releasing zinc ions into the liquid.

This is a exothermic reaction leading to formation of hydrated zinc phosphate.

 In the course the pH changes to 1.6, 4 and 6 to 7 at 2min, 1 hr and 24 hrs respectively.

The set cement consists of residual zinc oxide particles (core) bound together with matrix of

amorphous relatively insoluble gel of zinc, magnesium and aluminum phosphate.

 Clinical implication :

Large differences in tensile and compressive strength reflects the brittle nature of the cement. Solubility in water about 0.04% to 3.3% by weight. Because of the low initial pH, it may initiate the pulpal tissue. Used for placing the orthodontic bands.

Properties
Compressive strength

Zinc phosphate cement is stronger than zinc oxide eugenol but not as strong as silicophosphate. The strength of zinc phosphate cement is sufficient when used as base or luting agent. When it is exposed to oral enviournment eg:temporary restoration its brittleness and low strength cause low it to fracture and disintegrate.

 Tensile strength The cement is weaker in tension [5.5 Mpa] thus making it brittle. Modulus of elasticity It is comparatively high. This makes it stiff and resistant to elastic deformation.

 Solubility and disintegration This property is important for cements used for permanent cementation. It shows low solubility. However in mouth they show greater disintegration over a period of time. Adhesion property The retention of a cemented restoration is by mechanical interlocking of the set cement with roughness of the cavity and restoration.

 Biological properties

The acidity is high at the time of insertion due to phosphoric acid. Three minutes after mixing the pH 3.5. It approaches neutrality in 24 to 48 hrs. Very thin mixes should be avoided as they are more acidic. Optical properties The set cement is opaque

Manipulation Stainless steel spatula is used. Mixing time:1 min 15 secs

Procedure The powder is added in small increments. Mixing is done with stainless steel spatula using brisk circular motion. Each increment is mixed for 15 to 20 sec. A large area s covered during mixing in order to dissipate the exothermic heat.

ZINC POLYCARBOXYLATE CEMENT

 ZINC POLYCARBOXYLATE CEMENT

It was introduced by Smith in 1968. First dental cement developed with adhesive potential to enamel

and dentin. It has desirable properties of both zinc phosphate and zinc oxide eugenol.
Application
1. Primarily for luting permanent restorations 2. As bases and liners

3. Used in orthodonticsfor cementation of bands

4. Also in root canal filllings in endodontics
Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 Composition :

Powder :
Zinc oxide basic ingredient Magnesium oxide 10% it aids in sintering Or Tin oxide Bismuth salts Stannous fluoride 4.5% - increases strength, controls setting time. Pigments for shades

 Liquid :
Homo polymer of acrylic acid or copolymer of acrylic

with unsaturated carboxylic acids such as itaconic and maleic acid. Molecular weight of acids 22,000-50,000. Polyacid may be as freeze dried powder.

 Setting reaction : It is an acid base reaction. Reaction is between zinc oxide and polycarboxylic acid to form polycarboxylic salts. Acid attacks powder particles which release Zn and Mg ions. Simultaneous release of ions i.e. ionization of polycarboxylic acid takes place

 Then interaction between the carboxyl groups of adjacent polyacid chains and metal ions, thus crosslinked polycarboxylate salts are formed.
This acts as cement matrix. The set cement consists of amorphous salt matrix in which unreacted and partially reacted Zn and Mg oxide particles are dispersed. Tightly and loosely bound water is present in set cement.

 Clinical implication :
Outstanding feature of this cement is its ability to

bond to enamel and dentin. Glossy appearances indicates the free carboxylic groups which bond to tooth for cement and tooth tissues. They are capable of bonding with surfaces of metallic restorations, prosthesis and appliances

Properites
Mechanical properties

Compressive strength:[55MPa]
Polycarboxylate cement is inferior to zinc phosphate cement

Tensile strength[6.2 Mpa]its tensile strength is slightly higher than that of zinc phosphate cement. Solubility and disintegration
It tends to absorb water and is slightly more soluble than zinc phosphate.

 Biocompatibility They are less irritant than zinc phosphate cement because: The liquid is rapidly neutralized by the powder. Penetration of polyacrylic acid into the dentinal tubulesis less because of its higher molecular weight and larger size. Adhesion Poly carboxylate cement bond chemically with the tooth structure . The carboxyl group in the polymer molecules chelate with calcium in the tooth structure.

 Optical properties

They are very opaque due to large quantity of unreacted zinc oxide.

Thermal properties They are good thermal insulators.

Mixing time:30 to 40 seconds

GLASS IONOMER CEMENTS

Invented -1969 reported 1972 by WILSON AND KENT

POWDER Flouroalumino silicate glass

.

LIQUID poly alkenoic acid (carboxyl containing acid)

Introduction
Glass ionomer cements were introduced in 1972 ,primarily as luting agents and direct restorative material ,with unique property for bonding chemically enamel and dentin and to stainless steel and being able to release fluoride for caries protection.
It was named glass ionomer because the powder is glass and the setting reaction and adhesive bonding to tooth structure is due to ionic bond.

 Glass ionomer and light cured glass ionomer cements are now used by most orthodontists for cementing bands because they are stronger than zinc phosphate and polycarboxylate cement with less demineralization at the end of treatment
The light activated resin modifid GIC are faster setting and show higher initial and sustained shear bond stength than chemically cured ones.

 A subset of GICs were introduced in the mid-1990s called the"Condensible" or "Viscous" GICs.
These products such as Ketac Molar (3M ESPE) and

Fuji IX GP (GC America), are characterized by having smaller glass particles and a higher powder-toliquid ratio. This is said to give them higher strength, greater wear resistance, and greater flexural strength than traditional GICs.

Synonyms
Poly alkenoate cement
ASPA[alumino silicate polyacrylic acid]

Application
Cementation of cast alloy and porcelain restoration
Cementation of orthodontic bands Bonding of brackets with GIC has an advantage of

avoiding acid etching ,therefore elimination of mineral loss that occur during debonding with adhesive resin. As cavity liners or bases material An esthetic posterior restorative As pit and fissure sealent

Classification

Type I-For luting Type II-For restoration Type III-Liners and bases Type IV-Fissure sealent Type V Orthodontic cements Type VI-Core build up

Composition
powder
silica-41.9% Alumina-28.6%

Aluminium flouride-1.6%
Calcium flouride-15.7% Sodium flouride-9.3%

Aluminium phosphate-3.8%

Liquid Polyacrylic acid-with iticonic ,maleic acid,etc tends to increase reactivity of the liquid,decrease viscosity and reduce tendency for gelation. Tartaric acid-improves the handling characteristics,increses working time and shortens setting time. Water-it is the most important constituent of the cement liquid ,it is the medium of reaction and it hydrates the reaction products.

Setting time
Type I-4-5 minutes
Type II-7 minutes

Properties
Solubility and disintegration-like silicatethe initial solubity is high due to leaching of intermediate products.

The complete setting reaction reaction takesplace in

24 hours ,so the cement should be protected from saliva in the mouth during this period .

 Adhesion-GIC bonds chemically to the tooth structure. It adhere well to enamel and dentine.

Esthetically-they are inferior to silicates and composites.

 Biocompatibility-type II glass ionomer are relatively biocompatable.

The pulpal reaction is greater than that of ZOE cement but less than zinc phosphate cements.

 Anticariogenic properties-type II glass ionomer release in amounts comparable to silicate cement initally and continue to do so over an extended period of time.

Proportioning and mixing

Powder /liquid ratio-it is generally 3:1 by wt.
Low p/l ratio reduces mechanical properties and increase the chances of cement degradation.

Spatula used-agate or plastic

Manual mixing a cool dry glass slab is prefered as it

allow all powder to incorporated into the mix yet maintain its plasticity. Mixing time-45 sec

Setting Reaction:
Leaching: when the powder and liquid are mixed together ,the acid attacks the glass particles.
Thus calcium ,aluminium ,sodium and flouride ions

leach out into the aqueous medium.

Calcium cross links:the initial set occurs when the calcium ions cross links the polyacrylic acid

chains.this forms a solid mass.

Solid black particles represent unreacted glass particles surrounded by the gel{shaded structure}that form when Al+++, and Ca++ ions are leached from the glass as a result of attatch by polyacrylic acid.
The Ca++ and Al+++ ions form polysalts with the COO- group of the polyacryic acid to form a cross linked - reacts structure, the carboxyl group with calcium in enamel and dentin.

 Aluminium cross links: in this aluminium also begins

in cross link with polyacrylic acid chain.

Sodium and flouride ions:these ions do not take part

in the cross linking some of the sodium ions in the carboxylic groups. The rest combine with flourine to form sodium flouride which is uniformly distributed within the cement.

 Hydration :water plays a very important role in the

cement . Initially it serves as medium .later it slowely hydrates the matrix,adding to the strength of the cement.

Silica gel sheath:the unreacted glass particle is sheated

with silica gel.it is formed by the ions from the outer portion of glass particle.

Composites

INTRODUCTION: If the history of all-important landmarks were to be drawn, in dentistry (or in orthodontics) BONDING would figure high in list.

Orthodontic metal bands were introduced in 1871 by

W.E.Magill and have been in existence for more than 100 years..
Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 The introduction of acid etching technique by Buonocore in 1955 and the development of orthodontic resins (Diglycidyl ether of Bisphenol-A, with a polyamide curing agent) by Newman in 1965, has replaced the banding with bonding, making a new era in orthodontic history.

Even since the interception of bonding to orthodontics, the materials used for bonding have undergone considerable improvement from time to time.

ADHESION: Adhesion is a process of solid and/or liquid is interaction of one material (adhesive / adherent) with another (adherend) at a single interface. Adhesive bond strength is evaluated by debonding the system .

Most situations involving dental adhesion really involve adhesive joints. An adhesive joint is result of interaction of a layer of intermediate material (adhesive or adherent) with two surfaces (adherends).
Orthodontic bracket bonding is also an adhesive joint

TYPES OF INTERACTIONS AT INTERFACE

Adhesion is classified as PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL and/or MECHANICAL bonding . PHYSICAL BONDING involves van der Waals or other electrostatic interactions that are relatively weak.
It may be only type of bonding if surfaces are smooth & chemically dissimilar

 CHEMICAL BONDING involves bonds between the atoms formed across the interface from the adhesive to the adherend.

Because the materials are often dissimilar, the extent

to which bonding is possible is limited & overall contribution to strength is quite low.

 MECHANICAL BONDING is result of an interface that involves undercuts & other irregularities that produce interlocking of materials.
Almost every case of dental adhesion is based primarily on mechanical bonding. Common method for surface roughness is to grind or etch the surface. Grinding gross mechanical

roughness but leaves a smear layer (1-3 micron).

Composite Material: .

Defined as compound of two or more distinctly different material with properties that are superior or intermediate to those of individual constituents.

Composite restorative material:

Composition:

Resin matrix: High molecular weight bis-GMA or urethane di methacrylate are generally used.

Diluents like TEGDMA are used to reduce the viscosity.

 Filler Particles: Incorporation of filler particles into a resin matrix significantly improves the properties of

matrix materials.

Fillers used: Colloidal silica Quartz Glass containing heavy metals like Barium,Zirconium,Strontium

. of composite i.e filler particles and resin matrix is

provided by coupling agent.

Coupling agents: The bond between the two phase

Eg:Organo silanes like Methacryloxy propyltrimethoxy silane are most commonly used. Titanates & Zirconates.

Activator initiator system: Methacrylates and diMethacrylate monomers polymerize by the addition polymerization initiated by free radicals.

Free radicals are generated by chemical activation or by external energy activation [heat or light].

o Chemically Activated Resins:

o Contains 2 pastes 1.Benzoyl peroxide initiator

2.Tertiary amine activator [N-dimethyl-p-toluidine]

o Light Activated Resin:Contain single paste

1.Photoinitiator.Eg:Camphoquinone(visible light activated) Benzoin methyl ether (uvlight activated) 2.Dimethylamino ethyl methacrylate{activator}
Initially light activated system used UV lights now visible light are used wavelength of 400-500nm

(468nm)

Differences between light and chemically activated resins

Light activated
1.Requires light of correct wavelength for activation. 2.Cures only where sufficient intensity of light is received. 3.Working time is under the control of operator. 4.Supplied as single paste system in light tight syringes. 5.Srinkage is towards light source. 6.Less chance of air entrapment during manipulation. 7.Conturing & insertion done before initiation of polymerization.

Chemically activated
Activated by amine peroxide system. Cures throughout its bulk Working time is limited Supplied as 2 components system Shrinkage is towards the centre of the bulk. Air may get incorporated resulting in reduction of properties.

Done during polymerization.

 Classification:

1.Homogenous : Single size filler used. 2.Heterogenous : Filler of different size used for high filler loading
According to size

Mega fill Macro fill Midi fill Mini fill Micro fill Nano fill

>100 10-100 1-10 0.1-1 0.01-0.1 <0.01

 Average particle size of major filler

Traditional composite Small particle Micro filled Hybrid composite

8-12m 1-5m 0.04-0.4m 0.6-1m

Traditional/macro filled composites

Developed during 1970s Filler is ground quartz(8-12m) Radiolucent disadvantage is rough surface & tendency to discolour Poor resistance to occlusal wear Shear strength is 15.87 n/mm2

 Shear strength required is 6-8Mpa recommended by Reynolds

Comperssive strength-enamel;288-305Mpa,

dentin;232-276Mpa.
Tensile strength-enamel;10Mpa, Dentin;50Mpa

micro filled composites

Most polishable &esthetically acceptable of all composite

Inorganic filler is colloidal sillca (0.04m)

resin accepts only limited quantity of filler, due to increased

surface area of filler leading to increased viscosity

 Prepolymerized/organic fillers +saline coated

colloidal silica are mixed with to form paste

Small Particle composite:

Developed in an attempt to achieve the surface smoothness of micro filled and retain or improve physical and mechanical properties traditional composite.

Fillers used are quartz, glass of heavy metal and 5% colloidal silica to adjust viscosity of resin.

 Radio opaque can be used for posterior restoration.

Superior physical and mechanical used in high stress

area.

Hybrid composite:

To obtain better smoothness then that provided by small particle. Filler colloidal silica(10-20wt%)and heavy metal(0.61m)

 Radio opacity greater than that of enamel.

Surface smoothness and reasonably good strength. Used for anterior restoration.

Conditioners, Etchants, Primers,& Bonding agents Conditioning: Procedure involves cleaning the surface and activating the calcium ions to make them more reactive.

Etching: Here superficial calcium ions are demineralized there by creating enamel tags used for mechanical bonding with composite resin.

 Primer: They are the monomers dissolved in solvents such as water, acetone or alcohol.
These are applied over the etched surfaces

facilitating the easy flow of resins.

The agents contain both Hydrophilic group for compatibility of resin monomers with moist

dentin & hydrophobic group for copolymerization with resin.

Bonding agents: Unfilled resin consists of both hydrophilic &hydrophobic monomer.

ACID ETCHING
One of the most effective way of improving bond and marginal

seal between resin & enamel.

Acid etching technique by Buonocore in 1955. Discrete etching of enamel creates micro porosities, by selective

dissolution of enamel rod centre or peripheries or both.

Etched enamel has high surface energy allowing the resin to wet

the tooth surface better and penetrate into microporosites.

Resin penetrates upto 10-20m[depending on etching] and

polymerize to form resin tags.

 Commonly used etchant is 37% phosphoric acid[30-50%]. Concentration >50% forms monocalciumphosphate monohydrate

which inhibits further dissolution. clean.

<30% forms dicalcium phosphate dihydrate which is difficult to

Other acids like 10%Malic acid,2.5% nitric acid, Citric acid can

be used.

Supplied as aqueous solution or colored gel[collidal silica or

polymer beads are added]. flow.

Liquid is easy to apply difficult to control because of its free

Fine tip and soft bristle brushes are used to place the material or

acid applied in a syringe, which can be dispensed on enamel.

 Procedure: Tooth is cleaned and polished with pumice. Acid is applied on enamel for 60sec[15sec also provides the same bond strength. Tooth with high fluoride content and primary teeth(enamel is more aprismatic) requires a longer etching time.
Acid should be rinsed off thoroughly with a stream of water for

20sec and enamel dried thoroughly.

After drying enamel should have white frosted appearance

indicative of successful etch. The surface should be clean and dry until resin is placed to form good bond Bond strength to etched enamel ranged from 16-22MPa

Dentin bonding agents

1st generation: N-phenyl-glycine-glycidyl methacrylate (NPG-GMA) system.
It acts as a primer and adhesion promoter between enamel

/dentin and resin material by chelating with surface dentin.

Commercially introduced system Cervident (ss white)-has shown bond strength 2.8MPa

No improvement in marginal leakage .

Text book of operative dentistry Vimal k sikri second edition

2nd generation:In early 1980s it is used.

Agents were Phenyl phosphorous or chloro phosphorous esters of unfilled resins like BIS-GMA or HEMA

Clear fill: It wasthe first agent used in this series. Contain Ethylalcohol solution+Tertiary amine activator Catalyst liquid is BIS-GMA . Bond strength 2-7MPa

 Scotch bond:introduced in1983 This type of compound is formed by reaction between BIS-GMA+Phosphorus oxychloride Bonding to tooth calcium occurs through chlorines having a partial negative charge.

Dentin Adhesit: comprising of Iso cyanate monomer, chemical bonding through amino and hydroxyl groups on dentinal surfaces. Bond strength is 2-7MPa.
Other system are Prisma universal and Dental Adhesive.

 Drawbacks: Lack of bond strength to over come contraction stress during polymerization.

Being Hydrophobic, close adaptation to Hydrophilic dentin could not be achieved. Presence and nature of smear layer. Bio compatibility was not appropriate

3rd generation:

Consists of extra step of conditioning and priming of dentin but made the procedure more complicated and time consuming. Bond strength is 9-15MPa. First system of third generation was known as Oxalate bonding or FMP system

 The initial system utilized a solution of acidic Ferric oxalate on enamel and dentin as conditioner
This is followed by application of +Acetone solution of NTG-GMA {N p toluidine glycine and glycidyl dimethaacrylate} +solution of Pyromellitic dianyhdride+2HEMA

New bonding agent called Gluma system:1984, used 0.5 EDTA(Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid)+Aqeous solution of HEMAand glutaraldehyde.

Other system includes mirage bond and Scotch bond-2. Retention of bonding decreases with time.

4th generation:1991 by Nakabayashi Diffusion and impregnation of resin into partially decalcified dentin followed by polymerization creating a resin re-inforced layer or hybrid layer.

Advantages are reduced technique sensitivity and

Similar bond strength to enamel and denting(1724MPa). It can bond to mineralised tissue, metal, porcelin and amalgum.

eg:All bond-2,Scotch bond multipurpose,Clear fill linear bond-2,etc

5th generation:Involves concept of hybridization and rely on wet bonding technique.

After conditioning steps of priming and bonding are combined so that bonding is achieved with one component formula. Prime and bond system contain PENTA,TEGDMA and elastomoric UDMA resin in acetone. Other system Optic bond solo,Single bond. Bond strength is 17-24MPa

6th generation: These are one bottle Adhesive which combine all 3 components i.e. Etchant,Primer and Adhesive resin.
Bond to enamel is less effective as they contain acidic solution that cant be kept for long time and must be refreshed continuously. And also PH is not enough to properly etch enamel.

7th generation; single component phosphoric ester monomer&4-META

Consists of nano filled particals,acetone&water solvent

Decalcifies tooth, provides wetting property

Then polymerize & hardens, creates an ionic bond with

apatite crystals
Creates superior etch & adhesion to enamel providing

chemical and mechanical seal to dentin referred to as nano interaction zone e.g GCG-bond

ELASTICS IN ORTHODONTICS

ELASTOMERIC LIGATURES AND CHAINS

Elastomeric products are used in orthodontics

as ligatures and as continuous modulus (chains) for the engagement and retraction of teeth.
The elastomeric modules were first introduced

in orthodontics three decades ago, replacing teeth elastic appliances used for retraction of teeth that were fabricated from latex rubber.
Brantley and Eliades. Orthodontic materials

To minimize the plaque retaining capacity of elastomeric chains and risk of demineralization fluorides releasing elastomeric ligatures have been introduced.

 Composition and structure:

The elastomeric ligatures and chains are

polyurethanes which are thermosetting polymers possessing a (NH) (c = 0) o structural unit and formed by step reaction polymerization.
Manufacturing :

A basic intermediate is prepared in the form

of a low molecular weight polymer, usually a polyester or polyether.

 This intermediate is then reacted with an

aromatic di isocyanate to yield a pre polymer.

This elastomer is vulcanized through

isocyanate groups by reaction with alcohols or glycols.

Polymers possessing rubber like elasticity have

long chain, lightly cross linked structures.

 The restoring force leading to this type of

elastic behaviour is the result of a decrease in entropy associated with the distortion of a macromolecular chains form its most probable conformation.
Cross links between chains must be relatively

few to facilitate large extensions with no rupture of primary bonds.

 The glass transition temperature of

industrial and biomedical polyurethanes range from about - 500C to - 800C.

The difference in energy between the rigid

and rubbery states corresponds to the increased amount of molecular motion experienced by the polymer after undergoing glass transition.
Below the glass transition temperature the

molecular motions are primarily vibrational, permitting little flexibility.

 Above the glass transition temperature

coordinate molecular motions occur, allowing the material to become rubbery.

Higher the glass transition temperature the

more rigid the polymer causing greater force delivery, with higher value of elastic modulus.

 Methods of processing the modules :

a) Injection molding b) Die stamping

Primary structured influences on glass

transition temperature : Composition, Steric interferences. Types of bonding present in the molecule. Pigmenting the elastics has been done to increase patient acceptance.

 General properties of elastomers summarized by

Bill meyer :

When stretched rapidly, elongations greatly in

excess of 100% can be achieved, with no major loss of energy.

The highest values of tensile strength and

stiffness are obtained after full stretching.

 Upon removal of tensile force, a rapid

contraction occurs, since the polymer structure has a strong tendency to return to its original condition.
Full recovery takes place as long as the tensile

force does not exceed the elastic limit, demonstrating the high resilience of these materials.

 ELASTOMERIC LIGATURES Conventional ligatures :

Elastomeric ligatures constitute the major

medium engaging the arch wire to a bracket slot. Preferred over S. S ligatures Ease of application. Patient friendly nature. Aesthetic appearance. Potential of fluoride release. Decreased force delivery.

 Draw backs :

Though elastic ligatures are used during

initial aligning and leveling, their rapid force loss and permanent deformation may preclude use for rotational and torque corrections
Elastomeric chains are not inert in the oral

environment.

 The deleterious synergistic effect of loading

and water immersion is attributed to susceptibility to hydrolysis of the ester or ether backbone linkages in polyurethanes. This result in reduction of required to maintain fixed extension.
Elastomeric ligatures may be ineffective for

treatment applications involving large rotational moments.

 The pH and temperature variations in the oral

environment, along with accumulation of plaque and formation of microbial colonies on surface can affect the properties of elastomerics.

 Fluoride releasing elastomerics :

Advances in the field of elastomerics are the

introduction of fluoride releasing elastomerics.

Long term fluoride releases in the area adjacent

to bracket adhesive margins is of paramount significance.

Though there is decrease in streptococcus

count and increase in enamel hardness.

 There is a sleep decline in rate of fluoride ion

elution after 3 weeks.

Long term fluoride ion elution is not a reliable

factor to assess the efficiency of fluoride releasing elastomeric carriers, as these require frequent changes.
Fluoride releasing elastomerics are unable to

deliver force within the optimal range for tooth moment

 Elastomeric chains :

Elastomeric modules have been introduced to

improve force decay characteristics. The improved characteristics are attributed to : Variations in manufacturing teeth; where die

stamping or injection molding is used to fabricate.

Variations in additions incorporated in the basic

polyurethane polymer to obtain final product.

 Variations in morphological (ellipsoid or

circular modules) or dimensional characteristic (presence / absence of intermodulus link) of chain

Elastomeric modules experience a steep

decline in force of 40 50% during first 24 hrs, which continues at a lower rate for 2 to 3 weeks.

Force degradation arises form 2 processes initial force loss. Relatively slow rate of force loss at longer periods of time.

Rapid mechanism i.e. responsible for the large

With the advent of rare earth magnet

assemblies and of super elastic NiTi coil springs, that are capable of providing a constant low force over an extended period of time, resulting in increased time intervals between appointments, the use of elastomerics has diminished significantly.

ACRYLIC RESINS

 ACRYLIC RESINS

Poly methyl methacrylate resin were

introduced in mid 1940s. Acrylic resins is used extensively in the construction of removable and functional appliance. For removable applicances a self activated material is used as the thickness of the acrylic can be carefully controlled.
Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials 11th edn

 Composition of self curing resins :

Powder prepolymerised sphere of

poly (methyl methacrylate) and a small amount of benzoyl peroxide (initiator). Liquid - unpolymerized methyl methacrylate with small amount of hydroqeinone. Hydroquinone acts as inhibitor. Glycol dimethacrylate is used as a cross linking agent. Tertiary amine such as dimethyl para toludiene acts a activators.

 Polymerization : When powder and liquid

components are mixed, the tertiary amine causes decomposition of benzoyl peroxide.
Free radicals are produced and polymerization

is initiated.

Uses
1. For making temporary crowns and bridges
2. For the construction of special trays 3. For denture repair,and relining and rebasing 4. For making removable orthodontic appliance 5. For making temporary and permanent denture

bases.

Heat activated acrylic resins :

Commercial names:

Stellon {DPI},Lucitone,Trevelon{Dentsply}
Thermal energy is required for polymerization

which may be provided by water bath as microwave oven.

Composition of polymer and monomer are

similar but the polymerization procedure differs.

 Polymerization procedure :

When the resin is heating above 600C,

molecular of benzoyl peroxide decompose to yield electrically neutral species containing unpaired electrons.
These species are termed free radicals.

Each free radical rapidly reacts with an

available monomer molecule to initiate chain growth polymerization

 Heat acts as a activator which decomposed

benzoyl peroxide molecules.

Heat activated acrylic is stronger than self

activated acrylic.
Degree of polymerization achieved using

chemically activated resins is not as complete as that using heat activated systems.
Color stability is superior using heat activated

resins.

 REFERENCES
Textbooks : Anusavice K.J. Phillips Science of dental materials

11th edn Brantley and Eliades. Orthodontic materials

Proffitt W. Contemporary orthodontics

Text book of operative dentistry Vimal k sikri second edition

.. Run towards the best materials in the field ..