Flow Measurement

Introduction
Measurement of flow rate and quantity is the oldest of all measurements of process variables in the field of instrumentation It is made for determining the proportions and the amount of materials flowing in or out of a process. Without flow measurements, plant material balancing, quality control and even the operation of any continuous process would be almost possible

Mass Flow Rate

A mass flow meter, also known as an inertial flow meter is a device that measures mass flow rate of a fluid traveling through a tube. The mass flow rate is the mass of the fluid traveling past a fixed point per unit time. The mass flow meter does not measure the volume per unit time (e.g., cubic meters per second) passing through the device; it measures the mass per unit time (e.g., kilograms per second) flowing through the device. Mass flow rate is the mass of substance which passes through a given surface per unit time. Its unit is mass divided by time, so kilogram per second in SI units, and slug per second or pound per second in US customary units. It is usually represented by the symbol .

Continued
Mass flow rate can be calculated from the density of the substance, the cross sectional area through which the substance is flowing, and its velocity relative to the area of interest. A mass flow meter is one of the most accurate type of flow meters that is designed to measure the flow of gases as well as other fluids. There are two common types of mass flow meters: Coriolis mass flow meter (so named because it uses the Coriolis phenomenon to measure mass flow instead of volumetric flow) Thermal mass flow meter

Volumetric Flow Rate

The volumetric flow rate in fluid dynamics and hydrometry, (also known as volume flow rate or rate of fluid flow) is the volume of fluid which passes through a given surface per unit time (for example cubic meters per second [m3 s-1] in SI units, or cubic feet per second [cu ft/s]). It is usually represented by the symbol Q. Volumetric flow rate should not be confused with volumetric flux, as defined by Darcy's law and represented by the symbol q, with units of m3/(m2 s), that is, m s-1. The integration of a flux over an area gives the volumetric flow rate.

Reasons to control

To ensure the correct proportions of raw materials are combined during the manufacturing process To ensure that ingredients are supplied at the proper rate during the mixing and blending of the materials To prevent a high flow rate than might cause pressure or temperatures to become dangerous, overspills to occur, or machines to overspeed

Definition
Flow meters are a device used to measure the rate of fluid movement at a given point in the pipe or tube. The flow meter is usually secured to a break in the pipe and the fluid is allowed to move through it. Head meters infer flow rate by measuring the differential pressure head developed across a restriction in the flow line.

Flow Factors
In order to obtain an accurate measurement the following factors must be considered when measuring flow. Temperature Density Pressure Viscosity

Effects of Temperature
Gases are generally most affected; solids and liquids are less affected. Mass flow meters are used in temperature extremes.

Density decreases if temperature increases.

Effects of Pressure
Increase in pressure causes substances to compress (if mass remains constant) Decrease in pressure causes substances to expand (if mass remains constant) Gases are highly affected; solids and liquids are hardly affected

Effects on Viscosity
Viscosity is a measurement of how freely a fluid flows Viscosity is inversely affected by temperature The higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity The lower the temperature, the higher the viscosity

Parts of differential Flow meters

A differential flow meter basically consists of two parts Primary elements Secondary elements The parts of the meter used to restrict the fluid flow in the pipe line in order to produce a differential pressure are known as primary elements. Orifices plates, venturi tubes, flow nozzles, dall tubes, pitot tubes, annubar tubes, elbow taps, flume. Secondary elements are those which measure the differential pressures produced by the primary elements and convert them to usable forces or signals. manometer, bellow meters, force balance meters ring balance meters.

Orifice plates
Orifice plates are the simplest and cheapest form of primary elements and are used more frequently than all other types. An orifice plates is inserted in the line and the differential pressure across it is measured. There are four types of orifice plates. Concentric orifice plate Eccentric orifice plate Segmental orifice plate Quadrant edge orifice plate

Orifice Flow-meters
An orifice plate is a restriction with an opening smaller than the pipe diameter which is inserted in the pipe; the typical orifice plate has a concentric, sharp edged opening. Because of the smaller area the fluid velocity increases, causing a corresponding decrease in pressure.

Orifice Flow-meters
A) Concentric bore design Used for most clean fluids May clog if fluid contains solids (B) Eccentric bore design Hole is off-center Used for liquids that contain some solids (C) Segmental plate Used for thin slurries but less accurate
A B C

Advantages of orifice plates

Its cost is low. They can be used in a wide range of pipe sizes. They can be used with differential pressure devices. They are available in many materials.

Disadvantages
They cause relatively high permanent pressure loss. They have square root characteristics. They tend to clog, thus reducing use in slurry devices. Their accuracy is dependent on care during installation.

Venturi Tubes
A venturi tube is used where permanent pressure loss is of prime importance, and where maximum accuracy is desired in the measurement of viscous fluids.

Advantages
It causes low permanent pressure loss. It is widely used for high flow rates. It is available in very large pipe sizes. It has well known characteristics. It is more accurate over wide flow ranges than orifice plates or nozzles.

Disadavantages
Its cost is high. It is more difficult to inspect due to its construction.

Flow nozzles

Flow Nozzle

A flow nozzle consists of a restriction with an elliptical contour approach section that terminates in a cylindrical throat section. Pressure drop between the locations one pipe diameter upstream and one-half pipe diameter downstream is measured. Flow nozzles provide an intermediate pressure drop between orifice plates and venturi tubes; also, they are applicable to some slurry systems.

Advantages
Its permanent pressure loss is lower than that for an orifice plate. It is available in numerous materials. It is widely accepted for high pressure and temperature steam flow.

Disadvantages
Its cost is higher than orifice plate. It is limited to moderate pipe sizes. It requires more maintenance.

Pitot tubes
Pitot tubes are used mainly for the measurement of fluid velocity. The operating principle of a pitot tube is based on the fact that when a solid body is kept centrally and stationary in a pipe line with a fluid streaming down, the velocity of fluid starts diminishing due to the presence of the body till it is reduced to zero directly in front of the body This point is known as the stagnation point.

Pitot tubes
Bernoulli Equation:
2 2 ( P2 P ) ( V V 1 2 1 ) 0 g 2g In the Pitot V2 0

P2 2
Stagnation Point V2=0

P1,V
1

1 2 P2 P V 1 1 2

or V1

2P2 P 1

Adavantages
These tubes have no process loss They are economical to install. Some types can be easily removed from the pipe line.

Disadvantages
These tubes have poor accuracy. They are unsuitable for dirty or sticky fluids. They are sensitive to upstream disturbances.

Headmeters
Flowrate Q is a function of the differential pressure developed across the restriction.
Upstream pressure Downstream pressure

Q= 2gh Restriction in the flow line reduces the area

A headmeter produces an non-linear signal (Square Root Output)

Variable head or Differential Flowmeters

Variable head flow meters operate on the principle that a restriction in the pipe of a flowing fluid, introduced by the orifice plate or venturi tube, produces a differential pressure across the restriction element which is proportional to the flow rate. The proportionality is not a linear one but has a square root relationship in that the flow rate is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure.

Reynolds Number
Reynolds number is very important reference number in accurate determination of flow. It is used to determine the point at which the flow goes from the viscous to the turbulent stage. As the flow changes from viscous to turbulent and vice versa, there is a very marked change in the value of the flow coefficient, but there is very little change with further increase in speed. RD = VD/ RD = Reynolds number V = average velocity D = inside pipe diameter = density of flowing fluid = absolute viscosity

Variable Area Flow Meters

Rotameters are the most common type of VA flowmeters. The force of the flowing fluid (Q) causes the force to rise. The height of the float against a calibrated scale determines the flow rate.

Rotameter - How it works

The weight and shape of the float are designed to match the fluid properties. As the flow increases the area between the float and tube increase. The float finds a height where the pressure of the fluid and weight of the float are equal.

Advantages
Its cost is relatively low Rotameters have good rangeability. It is easily equipped with alarms switches, or transmitting devices. It can be used in some light slurry services.

Disadvantages
The glass tube type is easily subject to breakage. It must be mount vertically Rotameters are generally limited to small pipe sizes. It is not good in pulsating services.

Magnetic Flowmeter
Magnetic flowmeters are traditionally the first type of flowmeters to be considered for high corrosive applications and for applications of erosive slurries. These meters utilize the principle of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction for making a flow measurement. In the case of magnetic flowmeter, electrically conductive flowing liquid works as the conductor. The induced voltage is given by the equation

Working
E = CBLV E = induced voltage in volts C = dimensional constant L = length of conductor(fluid) B = magnetic field V = velocity of the conductor The equation of continuity to convert a velocity measurement to volumetric flow rate is given as Q = VA The volumetric flow rate can be written as Q = EA/CBL For given size of flowmeters A,B,C & L are constants thus induced voltage is directly proportional and linear with volumetric flow rate

Working Continued
The magnetic flow meter consists of an electrically insulated or nonconducting pipe such as fiber glass, with a pair of electrodes mounted opposite to each other. In this the flowing liquid acts as a conductor, the length L of which is the distance between the electrodes and equals the pipe diameter. As the fluid passes through the pipe section, it also passes through the magnetic field set up by the magnetic coils, thus inducing the voltage in the liquid which is detected by the pair of electrodes mounted in the pipe wall. The amplitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid.

Advantages
It can handle slurries and greasy materials. It can handle corrosive fluids. It is available in several construction materials. It is available in large pipe sizes and capacities. Measurements are unaffected by viscosity, density, temperature and pressure.

Disadvantages
It is relatively expensive It is relatively heavy, especially in larger sizes. It must be explosion proof when installed in hazardous electrical areas.

Turbine Flowmeters
The turbine flowmeter is used for the measurement of liquid, gas and very low flow rates. It works on the principle of turbine It consists of a multi-bladed rotor (turbine wheel) which is mounted at right angles to the axis of the flowing liquid. A turbine wheel is inserted in the fluid path of the turbine flowmeter and it rotates at a speed, which is a measure of the fluid flow rate inside. The speed of the rotor is directly proportional to the fluid velocity, and hence to volumetric flow rate .

Turbine Flow-meters

Working
The speed of rotation is monitored in most of the meters by a magnetic-pickup coil, which is fitted to the outside of the meter housing. The magnetic-pickup coil consists of a permanent magnet with coil windings which is mounted in close proximity to the rotor but internal to the fluid channel. As each rotor blade passes the magnetic pickup coil, it generates a voltage pulse which is a measure of the flow rate, and the total number of pulses give a measure of the total flow.

Advantages
Its accuracy is good It is easy to install and maintain It gives good temperature and pressure ratings. It can be compensated for viscosity variations.

Disadvantages
Its cost is high. Its use is limited for slurry applications.

Thermal Flowmeters
Thermal flowmeters are very popular for the measurement of gases, and can be used to measure flow rate in terms of mass, which is a very desirable feature, especially on gas. This type of flowmeter measures the rise in temperature of the fluid after a known amount of heat has been added to it. Its is based upon the specific heat equation which is given as Q = W Cp(T2 T1) W = Q/Cp(T2 T1) Q = heat transfer W = mass flow rate of fluid CP = specific heat of fluid T1 = initial temperature of the fluid after heat has been transferred T2 = final temperature after heating the fluid

Heat Transfer Flowmeter

Working of Heat Transfer Flowmeter

In this an electric immersion heater for heating of flowing fluid. Two thermocouples T1 and T2 are placed at each side of the heater. The thermocouple T1 measures the temperature of fluid before it is heated, while the thermocouple T2 measures the temperature so after. The power supply to the heater equals the heat transferred to the fluid, i.e. Q, and is measured by a wattmeter. Thus by measuring the values of Q, T1 and T2 the flow rate W of liquid is determined by the above equation.

Hot-Wire Flowmeters
A hot-wire flowmeter consists of two thermocouples, A and B, connected in series to form a thermopile. A third thermocouple C is placed in the output circuit of the thermopile. The thermopile is heated by passing an alternating current to it. The whole assembly is placed in fluid stream whose flow rate is to be mesured. The fluid cools the heated thermopile by convection, since the input power to the thermopile is held constant,

The thermopile attains an equilibrium temperature and produces an emf that is a function of the temperature of the gas, velocity of the gas, and its density, specific heat and thermal conductivity The third thermocouple attains the ambient temperature of the gas, generating an emf that is proportional to the gas temperature and which cancels the effect of ambient gas temperature on the output signal of the heated thermopile. E = C/2(KCPdV)1/2 + K E = voltage generated C = instrument constant K = thermal conductivity of fluid Cp = specific heat of fluid d = diameter of heated thermocouple wire V = velocity of fluid = density of the flowing fluid

Vortex Flowmeter
This measuring principle is based on the fact that vortices are formed downstream of an obstacle in a fluid flow.

Working of vortex
When the fluid flows past a bluff body in the measuring tube, vortices are alternately formed on each side of this body. The frequency of vortex shedding down each side of the bluff body is directly proportional to mean flow velocity and to volume flow. As they shed in the downstream flow, each of the alternating vortices creates a local low pressure area in the measuring tube.

Advantages
It has an excellent rangeability. It has no moving parts. It has very low pressure drop. It has good response speed.

Disadvantages
Their cost is high. Their upper temperature limit is 2040C They require in-line mounting.

Ultrasonic Flowmeter
In ultrasonic flowmeter, the measurement of flow rate is determined by the variation in parameters of ultrasonic oscillations.

There are two types of ultrasonic flowmeter

Time Difference Type Doppler Flow meter

Time Difference Type Ultrasonic Flowmeter

Working
These devices measure flow by measuring the time taken for ultrasonic wave to transverse a pipe section, both with and against the flow of liquid within the pipe. It consists of two transducer , A and B inserted into a pipe line, and working both as transmitter and receiver. An electronic oscillator is connected to supply ultrasonic waves . The detector measures the transit time from upstream to downstream transducer and vice versa.

Working continued
TAB = L/(C+Vcos) and the time(TBA) to travel from B to A is given as, TBA = L/(C- Vcos) L = the acoustic path length between A and B C = velocity of sound in the fluid = angle of path with respect to the pipe axis V = velocity of fluid in pipe The time difference between TAB and TBA can be calculated as T = TAB TBA = 2LVcos/C V = TC/2Lcos

Doppler Flowmeter
In Doppler flowmeter, an ultrasonic wave is projected at an angle through the pipe wall into the liquid by a transmitting crystal in a transducer mounted outside the pipe. Part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected by bubbles or particles in the liquid and is returned through the pipe wall to a receiving crystal.

The reflectors (bubbles) are travelling at the fluid velocity, the frequency of the reflected wave is shifted according to the Doppler principle.

 The velocity of the fluid is given by the equation V = fCt/2f0cos = fK f = difference between transmitted and received frequency Ct = velocity of sound in the transducer f0 = frequency of transmission = angle of transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis. K = constant