EE 4623: Analog Integrated Electronics

Operational Amplifier Applications

Objectives
Students should be able to:
Explain basic amplifier terms including:
Gain, Linear, Distortion, Decibel, Saturation, Biasing, Models,
Cascade, Coupling Capacitor, Transconductance, Open- and
Closed-Circuit Models.
Calculate gains for amplifier configurations.
Understand tradeoffs inherent in amplifier designs.
Identify the four amplifier types.
Understand how frequency response relates to
amplifiers.
Analyze op-amp simple circuits and effect of a finite
open-loop gain .
Understand the effects of offset voltage and offset
current in an Op-Amp.
Amplifiers
o i
v A v =
Amplifiers are 2-port networks:
input port
output port
A is called the amplifier gain.
If the gain is constant, we call this a linear
amplifier.
i
v
o
v
A
i
v
o
v
Amplifier Gain in Decibels
Amplifier gain is expressed in decibels (dB)
Originally it was expressed as Bels (named after
Alexander Graham Bell), but these proved to be of
insufficient size so we multiply Bels by 10 decibels.

Decibels are a log-based ratio and are therefore
dimensionless.

Purpose: We want to measure the ratio of some value
relative to another (e.g. sound power in a stereo
amplifier).

Derivation of dB
Derivation of Decibels
Ratio of power of interest (call it p
1
) to some other
reference power (say, p
2
):



However, these values are generally quite huge and
tend to be logarithmically related; thus, creation of
the Bel:
1
2
p
p
1
2
log
p
Bel
p
=
Derivation of Decibels (Contd.)
However, as mentioned, the Bel is a bit too small,
so lets multiply it by 10 and call it a decibel (10 x
Bel = 1 dB).

Which gives us the decibel expression for power:
1
2
10log
power
p
decibel
p
=
In-Class Exercise: dB for Voltage

Given the following equation for expressing
power in decibels, write a similar equation
expressing voltage in decibels:

1
2
10log
power
p
decibel
p
=
dB for Voltage
First, lets relate voltage to power:

2
/
p vi
i v r
p v r
=
=
=
In-Class Exercise: dB for Voltage
Upon substitution:




Which gives us the decibel expression for
voltage:
2
2 2
1 1 1
2 2
2 2 2
10log 10log 10log
v r v v
v r v v
| | | | | |
= =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
1
2
20log
voltage
v
decibel
v
| |
=
|
\ .
Lets Draw some Physical
Conclusions


if dB is positive, then v
1
> v
2
, the signal is
amplified.

if dB is negative, then v
1
< v
2
, the signal is
attenuated.

if dB is 0, then v
1
= v
2
.

Signal Amplification
A is the amplifier gain.

The premise is that this is a linear amplifier.

Amplifiers that are not linear exhibit nonlinear
distortion.
) ( ) ( t Av t v
i o
=
Gain (in Decibels)
Power Gain, A
p
Voltage Gain, A
v

Current Gain, A
i

The Meaning of Active in EE
What makes an amplifier an active circuit component?

Active components are devices that add intelligence in some
way to a signal that passes through it (in contrast to passive
components which consume but do not produce energy).
Passive components are incapable of power gain.

Active components can also switch the flow of current and are
capable of gain. Examples: Transistors, diodes, and vacuum
tubes.

Amplifier Saturation
What is the range of v
I
?

L
+
and L

are the positive, and
negative saturation levels,
respectively.

In order to avoid output saturation,
the input must be kept within the
linear range of operation:
I
v v
L L
v
A A
+
s s
Nonlinearity and Biasing
We want to operate in the linear
region. What have we added to
the amplifier (below) to achieve
the transfer characteristic
(right)?

By adding a DC offset to the
input, we bias the input voltage
to operate in this region.

Biasing
The bias point is also referred
to as the
quiescent point (Q-point).
DC bias point.
operating point.

The time-varying input signal
v
i
(t) is superimposed on the
DC bias voltage V
I
to create
the total instantaneous
input, v
I
(t)
( ) ( )
I I i
v t V v t = +
Coupling Capacitors
You will be using coupling capacitors rather heavily so it
is good to get an idea about what they are accomplishing!
Symbol Convention
Explain the nomenclature on the following graph:
Closed- and Open-Circuit
Amplifiers
Open-Circuit Amplifier Model

What is the relationship of v
o
to v
i
in the open-circuit voltage
amplifier model? Here, R
i
accounts for the fact that the amp draws an
input current (i
i
) from ______. R
o
accounts for changes in output
voltage as the amp is called on to supply output current (i
o
) to _____.





A
vo
is the open-circuit (voltage) gain factor (i.e., it is the gain of the
unloaded amplifier)

Closed-Circuit Amplifier Model
What is the relationship of v
o
to v
i
in the following closed-
circuit
model? What is R
s
? Finally, what is the relationship of v
o
to
v
s
?

Procedure/Solution
( )
o L
L
s i
i
vo
s
o
s i
i
s i
o L
L
vo
i
o
v
L o
o L
L
i vo o
R R
R
R R
R
A
v
v
R R
R
v v
R R
R
A
v
v
A
R R
R R
R
v A v
+ +
=
+
=
+
=
<<
+
=
Cascaded Amplifiers
Cascaded Amplifiers
Calculate the voltage gains of each stage assuming the
next stage is the load of the previous.
v
i1
/v
s
= 0.909 (i.e., a loss of gain at the input)

A
v1
v
i2
/v
i1
= 9.9

A
v2
v
i3
/v
i2
= 90.9

A
v3
v
L
/v
i3
= 0.909 (Voltage gain of output stage)

A
v
v
L
/v
i1
= A
v1
A
v2
A
v3
= 818 = ______dB (Total gain)

Gain (Source-to-Load): v
L
/v
s
= (v
L
/v
i1
)(v
i1
/v
s
) = 818 0.909 =
_____
Some Physical Observations
about
Cascaded Amplifiers
To avoid losing signal strength at the input (where the signal is
usually very small), the first stage has a relatively high input
resistance. The tradeoff is a moderate voltage gain.

The second stage doesnt need to have as high an input
resistance, and performs the bulk of the voltage gain.

The third stage provides no voltage gain, but functions as a
buffer amplifier, with a large input resistance and very small
output resistance (even lower than R
L
). This allows connection
to a small 100 O load.
Questions
What would the overall voltage gain be without stage 3?
Without stage 2? Without stage 1?

If R
L
varies from 10 O to 1,000 O, what is the range of the
corresponding voltage gain?

Answer: Range is 409 A
v
810.
Other Amplifier Types
Input signals of interest can be voltages or currents.

Some transducers have very high output resistances and can be
better modeled as current sources.

Output signals can be either as well.

The most popular is the voltage amplifier, but it is just one
type of model. Other are:

Current amplifiers
Transconductance amplifiers
Transresistance amplifier
These models are unilateral (i.e., signal flow is
uniderectional from input to output). Most real amplifiers
show some reverse transmission (generally undesirable ).

Our transistor models are generally of the
transconductance type.

Operational Amplifiers:
Ideal
The Inverting Configuration
Circuit Symbol
741 Op Amp (Pin-Out Diagrams)
Characteristics/Properties
(Ideal Op-Amp)






Property No.1: Infinite input impedance (Z
in
)

Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current (Z
in
= V
in
/I
in
)

As I
in
0 Z
in
.

High-grade op-amps can have input impedance in the TO range.

Some low-grade op-amps (on the other hand) can have mA input currents.

Ideal Properties (Contd)
Property No.2: Zero output impedance (Z
out
~ 0)

The ideal op-amp acts as a perfect internal voltage source with no internal
resistance.
Real-life op-amps have some internal resistance which then is in series with
an external load, thus reducing the output voltage available to the load.
Example:









Real-life op-amps have output-impedance in the 100-20 O range.
Ideal Properties (Contd)
Property No.3: Infinite Open-Loop Gain (A
vol
)

Open-loop gain is the gain of the op-amp without positive or
negative feedback.

Ideally infinite (typical values range from 20,000 to 200,000 in
real-life devices; normally feedback is applied around the op-amp
so that the gain of the overall circuit is defined and kept to a figure
which is more usable).

Open-loop gain falls very rapidly with increasing frequency.




Ideal Properties (Contd)
Property No.4: Zero Common-Mode Gain (what does this mean?!?)

An ideal op-amp only amplifies the voltage difference between its two
inputs.

If these inputs were to be shorted together (thus ensuring zero potential
difference between them), there should be no change in output voltage
for any amount of voltage applied between the two shorted inputs and
ground.

Example:




Common-Mode Gain (Meaning)
Voltage that is common between either of the inputs and ground (as V
common-
mode
is in this case) is called common-mode voltage. As we vary this
common voltage, the perfect op-amp's output voltage should hold absolutely
steady (i.e., no observable change in output for any arbitrary change in
common-mode input). This translates to a common-mode voltage gain of
zero.

The performance of a real op-amp in this regard is most commonly measured
in terms of its differential voltage gain (i.e., how much it amplifies the
difference between two input voltages) versus its common-mode voltage gain
(i.e., how much it amplifies a common-mode voltage). The ratio of the former
to the latter is called the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR):


) (
) (
Mode Common v
al Differenti v
A
A
CMRR

=
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
An ideal op-amp, with A
v

(Common-Mode)
= 0 would have an infinite CMRR.

Real-life op-amps have high CMRRs (the ubiquitous 741 having something
around 70 dB, which works out to a little over 3,000 in terms of a ratio).

A note about feedback compensation

Because the CMRR in a typical op-amp is so high, common-mode gain is usually
not a great concern in circuits where the op-amp is being used with negative
feedback.

If the common-mode input voltage of an op-amp circuit were to suddenly change
(thus producing a corresponding change in the output due to common-mode
gain), that change in output would be quickly corrected as negative feedback and
A
vol
worked to bring the system back to equilibrium.

Conclusion: A change might be seen at the output, but it would be a lot smaller
than what you might expect!



Characteristics (Contd)
Property No.5: Infinite Bandwidth (What does this mean?!?)

The ideal op-amp will amplify all signals from DC to the highest
AC frequencies.

In real op-amps, the bandwidth is rather limited; this limitation is
specified by the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB), which = the
frequency where the amplifier gain unity.

Some op-amps (such as the 741 family) have very limited
bandwidth of up to a few KHz.
Characteristics (Contd)
Property No.6: Zero Output Offset (What does this mean?!?)

The output offset is the output voltage of an amplifier when both
inputs are grounded, i.e.;








Ideal op-amp: Zero output offset.

Real op-amps: Finite amount of output offset voltage
The Inverting Configuration
Closed-Loop Gain
Determine the closed-loop voltage gain v
o
/v
I

(Solution)
1
2
2 1 2 1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1 2
0
0
0
R
R
v
v
R i R i v v
R
v
R
v
R
v v
i
A
v
v v e
e
v
A
I
o
o
I I I
vol
o
in
in
o
vol
=
= =
=

=
~ = =

Synthesis of the Feedback Resistor

Design an inverting op-amp where the closed-
loop gain is = 10 and the total resistance is
150KO.
(Solution)
2
1
2 1
2 1
1 1
1
2
10
10
150
10 150
13.63
136.3
o
I
v R
v R
R R
R R K
R R K
R K
R K
= =
=
+ =
+ =
=
=
Synthesis of the Feedback Resistor
Design an inverting op-amp where the closed-
loop gain is = 10 and the total resistance is
150KO.
(Solution)
O =
O =
O = +
O = +
=
= =
k 3 . 136
; k 63 . 13
k 150 10
k 150 : But
10
10
2
1
1 1
1 2
1 2
1
2
R
R
R R
R R
R R
R
R
v
v
I
o
Closed-Loop Gain II
Determine the closed-loop gain v
o
/v
i

(Solution)
1 2
1
2 2
2 2 2
3
3 3 1 3
2
4 2 3
1 1 3
4 4
2
2 2 4 4 2 4
1 1 1 3
2 4 2 4 2 4 2
1 1 1 3 1 1 3
2 4 2
1 1
0
1
1
I
x
x
I
I
I
o x
I I
o I
o I I
o
i
v
i i
R
v i R
v i R R
i v
R R R R
v R
i i i v
R R R
v v i R
v v R
v i R i R R v R
R R R R
R R R R R R R
v v v
R R R R R R R
v R R R
v R R
= =
=

= = =
= + = +
=
| |
= = +
|
\ .
| |
| | | |
= + + = + +
|
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .
= + +
3
R
| |
| |
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
The Very Real Effects of Finite
Open-Loop Gain
Recall the Ideal Op-Amp Model:
In Reality, v
1
= 0
The Effect of Finite Open-Loop
Gain
0
1 2
~ = =
vol
o
in
A
v
v v e
1 1 1
1
1
R
Avol
v
v
R
Avol
v
v
R
v v
i
o
I
o
I
I
+
=
|
.
|

\
|

=

=
2 1
:
R i
A
v
v
KVL
vol
o
o
=
2
1
R
R
A
v
v
A
v
vol
o
I
vol
o
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

vol
vol I
o
A
R
R
A R R
R R
v
v
<< +
+ +

=
1
2
1 2
1 2
1
make... therefore should Thus,
/ ) / 1 ( 1
/
( ) ??? Why
What is a Weighted Summer?
Simply put, it is an op-amp configured to produce the weighted sum
of two or more voltage inputs
Analysis of a Weighted Summer
Use superposition to analyze the following weighted summer (i.e.,
write an expression for v
o
in terms of the input voltages and input and
feedback resistors).
Solution
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
n
n
f f f
o
v
R
R
v
R
R
v
R
R
v ...
2
2
1
1
n
n
n
R
v
i
R
v
i
R
v
i = = = ... , ,
2
2
2
1
1
1
n f
i i i i i + + + = = ...
2 1
f
o
R
v
i

=
0
: Where
f o
iR v =
The Non-Inverting Configuration
How to derive the closed-loop gain (v
o
/v
I
) for this
configuration:
Closed-Loop Gain Derivation
1 1 1
1
1
0
: law s Ohm'
R
v
R
v
R
v v
i
I I I
=

=
2
1
2 1
0
: KVL
R
R
v
v v
R i v v
I
I o
I o
+ =
=

+ = =
vol
I
o
vcl
A
R
R
v
v
A
: Observe
1
: Thus
1
2
Design Exercise




Design a non-inverting op-amp where the gain
is +10 and the total resistance is 150kO. Sketch
the final circuit.
Solution
1 2
1
2
1
2
150k
1 10
15k
135k
R R
R
R
R
R
+ = O
+ =
= O
= O
The Difference Amplifier
What is a Difference Amplifier?
A Difference amplifier combines features of the inverting amplifier
and the non-inverting amplifier. It is the complement of the summing
amplifier and allows the subtraction of two voltages or, as a special
case, the cancellation of a signal common to the two inputs.
Use superposition

set v
1
= 0, solve for v
o
(i.e.,
this is a non-inverting
amp)
set v
2
= 0, solve for v
o
(i.e.,
this is an inverting amp)
Result of setting v
1
= 0 and then solving for v
o
(non-
inverting configuration):
2
4 3
4
1
2
2
1 v
R R
R
R
R
v
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
4 3
4
2
R R
R
v
+
Result of setting v
2
= 0 and then solving for v
o
(inverting
configuration):
1
1
2
1
v
R
R
v
o
=
Add the two results
v
o
= v
o1
+

v
o2





|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
2
1
4 3
4
1
2
2
1
R
R
v
R R
R
R
R
v v
o
Hint on the Shunt Resistor
Observation




Without R
2
, what
happens if there is a
tiny dc voltage?
Without R
2
, what
happens if there is a
tiny dc input offset
current?
Examples and Problems
Examples: 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1,11, 1.12, 1,13,
Problems: 1.8, 1.11, 1.16, 1.18, 1.19, 1.25, 1.26 1.31, 1.43, 1.44
Assignment No: 04
Problems: 1.16, 1.18, 1.19, 1.25, 1.26 1.31, 1.43, 1.44
Last date of submission: 07-05-2013