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o
o
o
o
e e e e
e e
o
o
o
o
o
o
e e e e
e e
e
e
= =
= + + + + =
+ + =
+ + + =
ZY =
INTERPRETATION OF Txn LINE EQN
INSTANTANEOUS v & i VARY BOTH IN TIME AND IN SPACE
THEY CAN BE EXPRESSED AS
WHERE V(z) & I(z) ARE PHASORS WITH COMPLEX MAGNITUDE AND PHASE COMPONENTS
THEY CAN BE EXPRESSED AS
is attenuation constant and is measured in Nepers/unit length
phase constant and is measured in Radians/unit length
} ) ( Re{ ) , (
} ) ( Re{ ) , (
)
)
t j
t j
e z I t z i
e z V t z v
e
e
=
=
| o
j
e I e I z I
e V e V z V
z z
z z
+ =
+ =
+ =
+
) (
) (
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
One solutions for the transmission line equations is as given below
Z
0
is the characteristic impedance of the medium given by
z z
e V e V z V
+
+ = ) (
Wave
travelling
in ve z
direction
Wave
travelling
in +ve z
direction
( )
( )
( )
z z
z z
z z
z z
z z
e V e V
Z
I
e V e V
Z
I
e V e V
Z
I
ZI e V e V
z
z V
e V e V z V
+
=
=
=
= + =
c
c
+ =
0
1
) (
) (
Y
Z
Z =
0
We have,
Since R<<jL and G<<jC (R, G, L & C are of the order of 10 , 1 , 1 mH and 1nF resp.)
and > 2 x 10
8
radians/s
EXPRESSION FOR Z0
C
L
Z
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C
L
C j
G
L j
R
C
L
Z
C j
G
L j
R
C j
L j
C j G
L j R
Y
Z
Z
=
<< =
<<
(
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
+
= =
0
0
0
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
) (
e e
e e
e e e e e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
We have,
Since R<<jL and G<<jC
EXPRESSION FOR
LC and
C
L
G
L
C
R
LC j
C
L
G
L
C
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
LC j
C j
G
L j
R
LC j
C j
G
L j
R
C j L j C j G L j R ZY
e | o
e
e e
e e e e
e
e e
e
e e
e e e e
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
<<
(
+ + + =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + = =
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1 1 ) )( ( ) )( (
R is generally in a few /m & L is in a few nH
Similarly, C is in pF & G in mMhos/m
BUT
> 2 *1 GHz.
Phase Velocity is the velocity at which the wave travels. In free space and air, the phase
velocity denoted by v
p
is 3x10
8
m/s
It is given by
In free space
In a lossy medium, relative velocity is given by
CONCEPT OF PHASE VELOCITY
r r
r
p
p
c
v
s m x
LC
v
LC
v
c c
c
|
e
= =
= = =
= =
1
/ 10 3
1 1
1
8
0 0
General solution of the transmission line equations is as given below
V
+
and V
-
are the forward and reflected waves
Reflected wave arises due to mismatch in the characteristic and load impedances
Reflected wave = 0 if Z
0
= Z
if Z
0
Z
then there will be reflections and the reflection will be complex
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
( )
z z
z z
e V e V
Z
I
e V e V V
+
=
+ =
0
1
~
Z
Z
g
P
s
Z
0
P
rs
P
inc
P
ref
P
tr
l
d
Reflection coefficient is defined as
At the receiving end, let the travelling waves be
EXPRESSIONS FOR REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
= I
e V
e V
( )
e V e V
Z
I
e V e V e V
=
+ =
0
1
~
Z
Z
0
P
s
Z
0
P
rs
P
inc
P
ref
P
tr
At the load end, Z
is given by
I =
+
= =
+ +
+
+
=
+
= =
+
0
0
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
e V
e V
e V e V e V e V
e V e V e V e V
e V e V
e V e V
Z
Z
e V e V
e V e V
Z
I
V
Z
l l l
The reflection coefficient is a complex quantity and can be expressed as
At a distance of d from the load, the reflection coefficient will be given by,
This may also be expressed as
EXPRESSIONS FOR REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
u j
l l
e I = I
d
l
d
d
d
d
d
e
e e V
e e V
e V
e V
2
) (
) (
I = = = I
( ) ) ( 2 2 2 2 d j d
l
d j
l
d
l d
l
e e e e
| u o | o +
I = I = I = I
Transmission coefficient is defined as
EXPRESSION FOR TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT
( )
( )
2
0
2
0
0
0 0
0
0
1
1
2
l
L
L
L tr
tr
l
l l
L
L L
l
l l
L
L
l
l
Z
Z
T
Z Z
Z
V
V
T
V
e
e V e V
But
Z Z
Z Z Z Z
e V
e V e V
Z Z
Z Z
e V
e V
I =
I + =
+
= =
=
+
+
+ +
=
+
+
=
+
+ +
= = =
I
I
V
V
current or voltage Incident
current or voltage d Transmitte
T
tr tr
Voltage Standing Wave results from the fact that two travelling wave components add in
phase at some points along the line and subtract at other points
Since and are real, the voltage standing wave may be expressed as
VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE
| | | |
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
(
(
=
(
+ + =
=
+ =
+ + =
+ = + =
+
) tan( tan
) ( sin ) ( cos
) sin( ) cos(
) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos(
1
2 / 1
2
2
2
2
0
0
z
e V e V
e V e V
z e V e V z e V e V V
e V V
z e V e V j z e V e V V
z j z e V z j z e V V
e e V e e V e V e V V
z z
z z
z z z z
j
s
z z z z
z z
z j z z j z z z
| |
| |
| |
| | | |
o o
o o
o o o o
|
o o o o
o o
| o | o
z
e V
o
+
z
e V
o
VSWR is defined as
V
max
occurs when both forward and reverse waves add and V
min
occurs when both forward
and reverse waves subtract.
Substituting,
Therefore, Alternatively,
VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO
min
max
min
max
I
I
V
V
current or voltage Minimum
current or voltage Maximum
VSWR = = = =
z z
e V e V V
o o
+
+ =
max
z z
e V e V V
o o
+
=
min
( )
( ) I
I +
=
1
1
( )
( ) 1
1
+
= I
( )
( )
I
I +
=
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
1
1
1
1
z z z
z z z
z z
z z
e V e V e V
e V e V e V
e V e V
e V e V
o o o
o o o
o o
o o
V
max
occurs when z = n
V
min
occurs when z = (2n-1)/2
Inductive load Maxima near load Capacitive load Minima near load
LOCATION OF MAXIMA & MINIMA OF VSWR
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
z z z z z
z z
z z z z z z
e V e V e V z j e V e V z V
z j z e V z j z e V V
e V e V e V e V e V e V V
o o o o o
o o
| o | o
| |
| | | |
+
+ =
+ + =
+ = + =
) sin( ) cos(
) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos(
/2
V
max
V
min
V
max
V
min
/2
POINTS TO REMEMBER
VSWR (s11) Reflected Power (%) Reflected Power (dB)
1.0 0.000 0.00 -Infinity
1.5 0.200 4.0 -14.0
2.0 0.333 11.1 -9.55
2.5 0.429 18.4 -7.36
3.0 0.500 25.0 -6.00
3.5 0.556 30.9 -5.10
4.0 0.600 36.0 -4.44
5.0 0.667 44.0 -3.52
6.0 0.714 51.0 -2.92
7.0 0.750 56.3 -2.50
8.0 0.778 60.5 -2.18
9.0 0.800 64.0 -1.94
10.0 0.818 66.9 -1.74
15.0 0.875 76.6 -1.16
20.0 0.905 81.9 -0.87
50.0 0.961 92.3 -0.35
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Generally, reflection coefficient = < 1 and is complex
IF LOAD IS PERFECTLY MATCHED TO THE LINE. = 0 ; VSWR = 1;
IF THEN THE LINE IS A SHORT CIRCUIT. = -1 ; VSWR = ;
IF, THEN THE LINE IS AN OPEN CIRCUIT. = +1; VSWR = ;
VSWR >1. It is a dimensionless ratio.
Typical VSWR values of a Troposcatter communication system
1:1 is perfect and is rarely achieved.
1.2 : 1 is very good and practical systems target this figure
1.5 : 1 usually gives a minor alarm in systems
2 : 1 is excessive and results in major alarm.
Return Loss is given by RL = -20log
10
|
+
= + =
+ =
~
Z
l
Z
g
I
g
Z
P
rs
P
ref
P
tr
l
Z
s
V
s
V V
r
Z
r
I
r
I
l
z
d
We have
From the sending end, z = 0 and
We get and
Hence,
Impedance at any point on the line calculated in terms of Z
s
(from the sending end) is
LINE IMPEDANCE
z z z z
z z
e
Z
V
e
Z
V
e I e I I
e V e V V
0 0
+
= + =
+ =
+
+ = V V Z I
s s
( )
0
2
Z Z
I
V
s
s
+ =
+
( )
0
2
Z Z
I
V
s
s
=
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
z
s
z
s
s
z
s
z
s
s
e Z Z e Z Z
Z
I
I
e Z Z e Z Z
I
V
0 0
0
0 0
2
2
+ =
+ + =
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
z
s
z
s
z
s
z
s
s
s
e Z Z e Z Z
e Z Z e Z Z
Z
I
V
Z
0 0
0 0
0
+
+ +
= =
+
= V V Z I
s 0
At z = , line impedance can be expressed as in terma of Z
and Z
0
Solving these two equations we get,
Putting ( - z) = d, impedance at any point on the line calculated in terms of Z
(from the
load end) is
LINE IMPEDANCE
( )
l
s
s
e Z Z
I
V
0
2
+ =
+
( )
l
s
s
e Z Z
I
V
=
0
2
l l
l l
e V e V Z I
e V e V Z I
+
=
+ =
0
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
d
l
d
l
d
l
d
l
e Z Z e Z Z
e Z Z e Z Z
Z Z
+
+ +
=
0 0
0 0
0
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
) (
0
) (
0
0
) (
0
) (
0
2
2
z
s
z
s
s
z
s
z
e Z Z e Z Z
Z
I
I
e Z Z e Z Z
I
V
+ =
+ + =
e
= cosh() sin()
Impedance from sending end is given by,
Impedance from the receiving end is
LINE IMPEDANCE IN TERMS OF HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS
| |
| |
| |
| | d Z Z
d Z Z
Z
d Z d Z
d Z d Z
Z Z
tanh
tanh
sinh cosh
sinh cosh
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
+
=
+
+
=
| |
| |
| |
| | z Z Z
z Z Z
Z
z Sin Z z Z
z Sin Z z Z
Z Z
s
s
s
s
tanh
tanh
cosh
cosh
0
0
0
0
0
0
=
If the load end is open circuited,
Since all the power is reflected, the incident voltage and
the reflected voltage are equal at the load.
Due to the open circuit, current is zero at the load
OPEN CIRCUITED LINE
| |
| |
coth
tanh 1
tanh 1
0
0
0
0
jZ
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
/2
( )
+
+
+ =
jV
V
e e V V
j j
2
| |
+
jV
V
2
+
jV
IZ
2
0
( )
+
+
=
jV
V
e e
Z
V
I
j j
2
0
| |
If the load end is short circuited,
Since all the power is reflected, the incident voltage and
the reflected voltage are equal at the load.
Due to the open circuit, current is zero at the load
Impedance of a short circuited line is purely reactive
At = \4, z is infinity(since current is 0) repeating at \2
SHORT CIRCUITED LINE
| |
| |
tanh
tanh
tanh
0
0
0
0
jZ
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
/2
( )
+
+
+ =
V
V
e e V V
j j
2
| |
+
V
V
2
+
V
IZ
2
0
( )
+
+
= =
V
VZ
e e
Z
V
I
j j
2
0
0
| |
If the load end is short circuited,
If the load end is open circuited
Solving these two equations we get,
Normalized Impedance is calculated as
SHORT & OPEN CIRCUITED LINE
oc sc
oc sc
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
=
=
0
2
0
| |
| |
tanh
tanh
tanh
0
0
0
0
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
| |
| |
( ) | |
( ) | |
coth
tanh
tan / 1
tanh
tanh
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
+
+
=
| |
| | I
I +
= =
1
1
0
Z
Z
z
For a loss line, at = /4
For = 0, Z
in
= Z
0.
Hence, if Z
1
is chosen carefully, the line will look as if it is terminated in Z
0.
whereas, the load impedance remains unchanged.
Hence, adding a quarter wavelength section of appropriate characteristic impedance to the
line will match the load impedance
QUARTER WAVE TRANSFORMER
| |
| |
Z
Z
jZ l Z
jZ Z
Z Z
in
2
1
1
0
1
sin cos
sin cos
=
+
+
=
| |
| |
Z
Z
0
Z
1
Z
in
/4