METHODS OF GENERATING ELECTRICITY

Presented by:- Deepanshu Setia Enroll. No. :- A51204011002 5th Semester B.ARCH

Electricity generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating electrical power from sources of primary energy.
The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other processes, electricity transmission ,distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry.

Primary energy
Primary energy is an energy form found in nature that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process. It is energy contained in raw fuels, and other forms of energy received as input to a system. Primary energy can be non-renewable or renewable.

Non renewable sources:Oil or crude oil Coal or natural gas Natural uranium

Renewable sources:-

Solar energy Wind energy Tidal energy Biomass energy Geothermal energy

What is natural uranium ?

Natural uranium (NU) refers to uranium with the same isotopic ratio as found in nature. It contains 0.7% uranium-235, 99.3% uranium238, and a trace of uranium-234 by weight (0.0055%). In terms of the amount of radioactivity, approximately 2.2% comes from uranium-235, 48.6% uranium-238, and 49.2% uranium-234.

Conversion to secondary energy

Primary energy sources are transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient forms of energy (that can directly be used by society), such as electrical energy, refined fuels, or synthetic fuels such as hydrogen fuel. In the field of energetics, these forms are called energy carriers and correspond to the concept of "secondary energy" in energy statistics. Energy carriers are energy forms which have been transformed from primary energy sources. Electricity is one of the most common energy carriers, being transformed from various primary energy sources such as coal, oil, natural gas, and wind.

History
Central power stations became economically practical with the development of alternating current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage and with low loss. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1881. The first power plants were run on water power or coal, and today we rely mainly on coal ,nuclear , natural gas, hydroelectric, wind generators, and petroleum, with a small amount from solar energy, tidal power, and geothermal sources. The use of power-lines and power-poles have been significantly important in the distribution of electricity.

Methods of generating electricity

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy: Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of charge (examples: lightning) Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be experimented by simply rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting material (e.g. copper wire) Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse

Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic molecules or crystals. Researchers at the US Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have developed a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate a liquid crystal display using thin films of M13 bacteriophage. Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged particles (examples: betavoltaics or alpha particle emission) Photoelectric effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells Thermoelectric effect, the direct conversion of temperature differences to electricity, as in thermocouples, thermopiles, and thermionic converters.

Turbines
All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier. Many of the heat engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines can be driven by wind or falling water. Sources include: Steam - Water is boiled by: Nuclear fission The burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). In hot gas (gas turbine), turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion of natural gas or oil. Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both steam and natural gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate additional electricity from steam. These plants offer efficiencies of up to 60%.

TURBINES

By Renewable sources of energy the steam is generated by: Biomass Solar thermal energy (the sun as the heat source): solar parabolic troughs and solar power towers concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to produce steam. Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create vapour to drive a turbine. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC): uses the small difference between cooler deep and warmer surface ocean waters to run a heat engine (usually a turbine).

Other renewable sources: Large dams such as Hoover Dam can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has 2.07 GW capability. Water (hydroelectric) - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water, produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces. Wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind. Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney by heating it with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms of solar thermal energy.

Reciprocating engines
Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel, biogas or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low voltages. However most large power grids also use diesel generators, originally provided as emergency back up for a specific facility such as a hospital, to feed power into the grid during certain circumstances. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine.

GENERATORS

Photovoltaic panels
Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental systems.

PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS

Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, California and New Jersey.

Wind energy
attains between 50 70% efficiency one windmills average energy output ranges from 11.4 W/m^2 57 W/m^2 depending on how windy wind farms tend to generate between 50 and 600 Kw California currently produces of all the wind generated electricity in the world. North Dakota with 20 times the wind potential of California has not erected a single wind turbine

Kilronan Wind Farm In Ireland

Problems with wind power

Wind variability must be overcome by system design Differences in pressure gradients around wind turbines affect birds Noise from the turbines affects people and animals

Hydro electric power

Conversion from potential energy of water to electric energy is at 80 90% efficiency. Hydroelectric projects in the United States have rated capacities from 950 6480 MW The use of Water Power is much greater in some other countries.
Norway obtains 99% of its electricity from water power. Nepal, Brazil, and New Zealand are close seconds.

Shasta Dam In California

Problems
About 50% of the United States potential for hydroelectric energy has been tapped. However, further advances are unlikely. The Wild and Scenic River Act and the Endangered Species Act have inhibited development of some sites Silt collection in hydroelectric Dam storage volumes over time causes maintenance issues, as well as environmental concerns The loss of free flowing streams and land due to flooding behind the dam disturbs the life of species: eg Salmon Possibility of dam failure

Fossil Fuels Oil Refinery Pasadena - Texas

Standard Large Power Plants Provide 1 Giga-watt of electric power and releases 2 Giga-watts of thermal power as waste heat. An efficiency averaging around 30%. -9000 tons of coal a day -40,000 barrels a day or one tanker a week of oil -generates about 5.3 x 10^9 kwh/year -powers a city of a million people

Problems
-In normal operations a nuclear reactor produces some environmental emissions. E.g.: escape of radioactive fission products through cracks and diffusion, radioactive H3 in small amounts in discharged water -Core meltdown are possible, but unlikely due to negative feedback and shutdown systems -Even after shutdown there is 7% of normal power generation still in the reactor fuel rods. This may be sufficient enough to melt core and destroy the reactor, if cooling water is not supplied -A study entitled Severe Accident Risks: An Assessment for Five US Nuclear Power Plants conducted by NRC in 1990, shows that for all the 109 reactors now operating in the United States over a 30 year lifetime there is about a 1% chance of a large release due to internal events.

Other forms of energy

-Solar Power uses the sun energy to either boil water or directly converts solar energy to electrical energy -Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion uses temperature differences between different depths of ocean water to drive a heat engine. Working fluid is ammonia which is gas at room temperature. -Biomass Energy: Municipal Solid Waste burning wastes to drive heat engines -Geothermal Energy based on naturally occurring heat in the Earth in the Earth due to radioactive decay -Tidal Energy uses the gravitational pull of the moon on our oceans to drive turbines

Proportion of Worlds energy consumption - 1997

Proportion of the worlds Electricity generation - 1997

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