CASTING PROCEDURE AND CASTING DEFECTS

CONTENTS
Master die Wax pattern Spruing Liner Investing procedure Casting machines Cleaning the casting Causes of defective castings Porosity Conclusion References

Definitions
According to glossary of Prosthodontics terms (GPT-8) Casting (1) something that has been cast in a mold. (2) An object formed by the solidification of fluid that has been poured or injected in to a mold. Sprue former- A wax, plastic, or metal pattern used to form the channel allowing molten metal to flow in the mold to make a casting. Investing The process of covering or enveloping wholly or in part , an object such as denture , tooth, wax form, crown etc. with a suitable investment material before processing or casting.

Master die After making impression first step is die making. The most commonly used die materials are Type IV and Type V improved stones.

Setting expansion of Type IV stone is 0.1% and Type V is 0.3%.

To reduce setting expansion accelerator( potassium sulfate ) and retarder( borax) can be added. Different types and methods of die making 1 Die stone investment combination

2 Other die materials( acrylic, polyester and epoxy resin)

3 Electroformed die

Wax pattern

According to American dental association specification number 4, wax used for making wax pattern are divided into three types: Type A - Hard or low flow wax used in indirect technique . Type B Used for direct technique . Type C Also used for direct technique.

To allow for a clean separation of the wax pattern from a gypsum die, a die lubricant must be applied to gypsum surface prior to placement of molten wax .
Lubricant is oil based . And excess of lubricant should not be used as it may obscure detail of die, or may get adsorbed to the wax pattern.

Steps involved in a casting procedure

Spruing the wax pattern

Investing the wax pattern Burning out the wax pattern Casting the dental alloy Sandblasting the framework Finishing the framework

Spruing
Purpose To form a mount for the wax pattern and fix the pattern in space so a mold can be made. To create a channel for elimination of wax during burnout. To form a channel for the ingress of molten alloy. compensate for alloy shrinkage during solidification.

Sprue Size And Design

Large and small inlays require sprues that are 14 gauge (4 to 5 mm long) and 16 gauge (3 to 4 mm long), respectively. Large and small crowns require 10- and 12gauge sprues, respectively, with an average sprue length of 4 to 5 mm.

Point Of Attachment
Sprue attachment must always be made at the bulkiest portion of the pattern.
a- crucible former, b-sprue, c-cavity formed by wax pattern after burnout, d-investment, e- liner, f- casting ring, g- recommended maximum thickness of approx. 6 mm. b/w the end of invested ring to provide pathway for gas escaping.

The wax sprue is the most commonly used. A hollow-metal sprue pin is preferable to a solid metal pin. Plastic sprues are not recommended.

Sprue Selection

Liner
The most commonly used technique to provide investment expansions is to line the walls of the ring with a ring liner. Traditionally, asbestos was the material of choice. Three types of non-asbestos ring liner materials have been produced: 1. an aluminosilicate ceramic liner 2. cellulose (paper) liner 3. Ceramic cellulose combination

 Functions of ring liner

1. A liner is placed inside the ring to allow lateral expansion of the investment. 2. When the ring is transferred from the furnace to the casting machine it reduces heat loss as it is thermal insulator 3. Permits easy removal of the investment after casting. Three millimeters of clearance is allowed at each end of the ring so the mold is sealed and anchored. The dry liner is tacked in position with sticky wax, and it is then used either dry or wet. With a wet liner technique, the lined ring is immersed in water for a time, and the excess water is shaken away. Squeezing the liner should be avoided, because this lead to variable amounts of water removal and nonuniform expansion.

INVESTING PROCEDURE
The wax pattern should be cleaned of any debris. Appropriate amount of distilled water (gypsum investments) or colloidal silica special liquid (phosphate investments) is dispensed. Mechanical mixing under vacuum removes air bubbles created during mixing and evacuates any potentially harmful gases produced by the chemical reaction of the high-heat investments.

Compensation for Shrinkage

Two liners allow a greater setting and thermal expansion than does a single liner. By varying the L/P ratio of the investment.
Casting procedure Invested ring is placed in a room temp. furnace and heated up to For gypsum bonded ( hygroscopic ) ------ 468 oC For gypsum bonded ( thermal expansion ) ---- 650 oC For phosphate bonded investment -------700 - 870 oC

Hygroscopic low heat technique In this technique compensation for shrinkage is done with : 1. 37oc water bath expands the wax pattern.

2. Warm water enters the mold and hygroscopic expansion is obtained .

3. thermal expansion
During this technique care must be taken to allow sufficient burnout time because wax is slowly eliminated at low temperature. Porosity is more in low temp. technique then high temp. technique

The hygroscopic technique was developed for alloys with high gold content but there was a need for slightly more expansion for newer noble alloys and this added expansion may be obtained from : 1. increasing the water bath temp. to 40 0c 2. using two layer of liner. 3. increasing the burnout temp. to a range of 600oc 650oc

High heat thermal expansion technique

This technique mainly depends on high heat burnout to obtain the required expansion. Gypsum investment isnt heated more than 700 0c, because above this temperature carbon react with calcium sulfate binder & forms sulfur dioxide which contaminates gold casting and make them extremely brittle.

In phosphate investment expansion is obtained from : 1. Expansion of wax pattern 2. Setting expansion which is higher than gypsum investment because in phosphate investment colloidal silica is used as a liquid

3. Thermal expansion which is also greater.

A total expansion of 2% or more is required for porcelain bonded alloys.

WAX ELIMINATION AND HEATING

It is also advisable to begin the burnout procedure while the mold is still wet. Water trapped in the pores of the investment reduces the absorption of wax, and as the water vaporizes, it flushes wax from the mold. If the burnout procedure does not immediately follow the investing procedure, the invested ring is placed in a humidor at 100% humidity.

Gypsum Investments
Rapid heating can generate steam, which can cause flaking or spalling of the mold walls. Too many patterns in the same plane within the investment often cause separation of a whole section of investment, because the expanding wax creates excessive pressure over a large area. Too rapid a heating rate may also cause cracking of the investment

 The outside layer starts to expand thermally, resulting in compressive stress in the outside layer, which counteracts tensile stresses in the middle regions of the mold. Such a stress distribution causes the brittle investment to crack from the interior outwardly in the form of radial cracks. These cracks, in turn, produce a casting with fins or spine.
Fins on the surface of a casting that formed as a result of cracks in the investment before casting of the metal.

Phosphate Investments Phosphate investments obtain their expansion from the following sources:
Expansion of the wax pattern this is considerable because the setting reaction raises the mold temperature substantially. Setting expansion this is usually higher than in gypsum investments, especially because special liquids are used to enhance such expansion. Thermal expansion this is greater when taken to temperatures higher than those used for gypsum-bonded investments.

 The usual burnout temperatures for phosphate-bonded investments range from 750 to 1030 C. Highest temperatures are required for base metal alloys.

The heating rate is usually slow to 315 C and is quite rapid thereafter, reaching completion after a hold at the upper temperature for 30 minutes.
To save time, the metal ring is being replaced with a plastic ring that is tapered so that once the investment has set, it can be pushed out of the ring, held for a specified time to ensure complete setting, and then placed directly into the hot furnace.

Time gap before doing Casting

The investment contracts thermally as it cool. Under average conditions of casting, approximately 1 minute can pass without a noticeable loss in dimension. In the low-heat casting technique, the temperature gradient between the investment mold and the room is not as great as that employed with the high-heat technique. Alloy should be cast soon after removal of the ring from the oven; otherwise a significant variation from the desired casting dimensions may occur.

CASTING MACHINES
Alloys are melted in one of the four following ways, depending on various types of casting machines:

The alloy is melted in a separate crucible by a torch flame and is cast into the mold by centrifugal force.
The alloy is melted electrically by a resistance heating or induction furnace, then cast into the mold centrifugally by motor or spring action. The alloy is melted by induction heating, then cast into the mold centrifugally by motor or spring action. The alloy is vacuum arc melted and cast by pressure in an argon atmosphere.

Torch Melting/Centrifugal Casting Machine

The alloy is melted by a torch flame in a glazed ceramic crucible attached to the "broken arm" of the casting machine. The broken arm feature accelerates the initial rotational speed of the crucible and casting ring, thus increasing the linear speed of the liquid casting alloy as it moves into and through the mold.

Once the metal has reached the casting temperature and the heated casting ring is in position, the machine is released and the spring triggers the rotational motion.

METAL FLOWS IN TO THE MOLD

As metal fills hydrostatic pressure gradient develops along the length of the casting. The pressure gradient from the tip of the casting to the bottom surface is quite sharp and parabolic in form, reaching zero at the button surface. Pressure gradient at the moment before solidification reaches is about 0.21 to 0.28 MPa (30 to 40 psi) at the tip of the casting. There is also a gradient in the heat transfer rate such that the greatest rate of heat transfer to the mold is at the high pressure end of the gradient (i.e., the tip of the casting). Because this end also is frequently the sharp edge of the margin of a crown, there is further assurance that the solidification progresses from the thin margin edge to the button surface.

 Current is passed through a resistance heating conductor, and automatic melting of the alloy occurs in a graphite or ceramic crucible.

Electrical Resistance-Heated Casting Machine

Advantages:
Used for metal-ceramic prostheses, which are alloyed with base metals in trace amounts that tend to oxidize on overheating. The crucible in the furnace is located flush against the casting ring. Therefore the alloy button remains molten slightly longer, again ensuring that solidification progresses completely from the tip of the casting to the button surface.

Induction Melting Machine

Alloy is melted by an induction field that develops within a crucible surrounded by water cooled metal tubing. The electric induction furnace is a transformer in which an alternating current flows through the primary winding coil and generates a variable magnetic field in the location of the alloy to be melted in a crucible. Once the alloy reaches the casting temperature in air or in vacuum, it is forced into the mold by centrifugal force, by air pressure, or by vacuum. Used for melting base metal alloys.

Direct Current Arc Melting Machine

The direct current arc is produced between two electrodes: the alloy and the water cooled tungsten electrode. The temperature within the arc exceeds 4000C, and the alloy melts very quickly. This method has a high risk for overheating the alloy, and damage may result after only a few seconds of prolonged heating.

Vacuum or Pressure Assisted Casting Machine

The molten alloy is heated to the casting temperature, drawn into the evacuated mold by gravity or vacuum, and subjected to additional pressure to force the alloy into the mold. For Titanium and Titanium alloys, vacuum arc heated argon pressure casting machines are required.

Casting Crucibles
Four types of casting crucibles are: Clay, Carbon, Quartz, and Zirconium-alumina Clay crucibles are appropriate for many of the crown and bridge alloys, such as the high noble and noble types. Carbon crucibles can be used not only for high noble crown and bridge alloys but also-for the higher-fusing, gold-based metal-ceramic alloys.

Torch Melting of Noble Metal Alloy

Fuel used is a mixture of natural or artificial gas and air, oxygen-air and acetylene can also be used. When the reducing zone is in contact, the surface of the gold alloy is bright and mirror like.

FLAME

When the oxidizing portion of the flame is in contact with the alloy, there is a dull film of "dross" developed over the surface. The alloy first appears to be spongy, and then small globules of fused alloy appear.

Mirror like surface of the metal indicates proper fusion. B, Cloudy surface indicates surface oxidation by improper positioning of the torch flame.

 The molten alloy soon assumes a spheroidal shape. At the proper casting temperature, the molten alloy is light orange and tends to spin or follow the flame when the latter is moved slightly. At this point, the alloy should be approximately 38 to 66 C above its liquidus temperature. The casting should be made immediately when the proper temperature is reached.

HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment is helpful in finishing margins. To adequately resist excessive wear, however, the restoration must be returned to a hardened state prior to its clinical use. It is done for all gold alloys. Softening heat treatment: consist of heating the alloy to 700C and maintaining that temperature for approximately 15 minutes, followed by quenching in room temperature water.

May be conducted in either of two ways : Heat soaking at a constant temperature approximately 450C for 15 minutes.

of

Slow cooling from 450C 250C over a period of 15 minutes, followed by quenching in water.

CLEANING THE CASTING

Two advantages are gained in quenching: (1) The noble metal alloy is left in an annealed condition for burnishing, polishing, and similar procedures, (2) When the water contacts the hot investment, a violent reaction ensues, resulting in a soft, granular investment that is easily removed.

The surface of the casting appears dark with oxides and tarnish. Such a surface film can be removed by a process known as pickling, which consists of heating the discolored casting in an acid. One of the best pickling solutions for gypsum-bonded investments is a 50% hydrochloric acid solution.

 The disadvantage of hydrochloric acid is that the fumes from the acid are likely to corrode laboratory metal furnishings. The pickling process can be performed ultrasonically while the prosthesis is sealed in a Teflon container. A solution of 50% sulfuric acid may also be more advantageous in this respect. Cold hydrofluoric acid dissolves the silica refractory quite well without damage to a gold-based or a palladium-silver alloy. Base metal alloys require a light Sandblasting, usually with fine alumina.

Selecast System Titanium casting system for dentistry

Designed as full-automatic operation
It includes LCD operation panel It includes Inverter-motor for more stability of turn-table. There more large size vacuum pump The electric devices have wider margin to its limit value, it means to be more safety.

Characteristics
In 'SPIN CAST METHOD' pores are scarcely formed, since mold rotates (with 3,000 r.p.m.) before casting.

Structure
It has a vacuum chamber in its upper body, which consists of argon arc melting system and centrifugal casting system. The body contains vaccum pump, high-voltage electrode for melting, turn-table rotary motor, bulbs and control system which covers all of the device. When 'POWER' button is pushed and touch to auto start, the chamber is evacuated and argon gas flows in it. Arc melting with tungsten electrode, titanium ingot in crucible melts down in argon atmosphere. After the rotary speed of the mold (which is horizontally spun) gets higher than fixed, molten titanium is poured into the gate from the tilting crucible

Casting method

Horizontal-centrifugal casting with tilting - type crucible After vacuumed, electric are melting in argon atmosphere Max.41g (pure titanium and titanium alloy) Automation exhaustion - feeding of argon - spinning of mold melting - casting 14.6 liters Max. 3,000 R.P.M W510 * D725 * H 1,130 (mm) 220kg

Melting method Melting ability

Electric control

Chamber volume Revolution of mold Size (outward) Weight

CAUSES OF DEFECTIVE CASTINGS

Defects in castings can be classified under four headings:

(1) Distortion
(2) Surface roughness and irregularities (3) Porosity

(4) Incomplete or missing details

Distortion
Is probably related to distortion of the wax pattern. This type of distortion can be minimized by proper manipulation of the wax and handling of the pattern. Distortion of the wax pattern occurs as the investment hardens around it. The setting and hygroscopic expansions of the investment may produce a non-uniform expansion of the walls of the pattern. The gingival margins are forced apart by the mold expansion, whereas the solid occlusal bar of wax resists expansion during the early stages of setting. The lesser the setting expansion of the investment, the less the distortion.

Surface Roughness, Irregularities, and Discoloration

Surface roughness is defined as relatively finely spared surface imperfections whose height, width, and direction establish the predominant surface pattern. Surface irregularities are isolated imperfections, such as nodules, that are not characteristic of the entire surface area.

Surface irregularities on an experimental casting caused by air bubbles (A), water film (B) and inclusion of foreign body (C)

Air Bubbles
Small nodules on a casting are caused by air bubbles that become attached to the pattern during or subsequent to the investing procedure. For nodules on margins or on internal surfaces removal of these irregularities might alter the fit of the casting.

Prevention
The use of a mechanical mixer with vibration both before and after mixing should be practiced routinely. The wetting agent be applied in a thin layer. It is best to air dry the wetting agent, because any excess liquid dilutes the investment, possibly producing surface irregularities on the casting.

Water Films
Wax is repellent to water and if the investment becomes separated from the wax pattern in some manner, a water film may form irregularly over the surface. This type of surface irregularity appears as minute ridges or veins on the surface. Too high an L/P ratio may also produce these surface irregularities. A wetting agent is of aid in the prevention of such irregularities.

Under Heating
Incomplete elimination of wax residues may occur particularly with the low-temperature investment techniques. Voids or porosity may occur in the casting from the gases formed when the hot alloy comes in contact with the carbon residues. The casting may also be covered with a tenacious carbon coating that is virtually impossible to remove by pickling.

Prolonged Heating
If the high-heat casting technique is used, a prolonged heating of the mold at the casting temperature is likely to cause a disintegration of the gypsum-bonded investment, and the walls of the mold are roughened as a result. The products of decomposition are sulfur compounds that may contaminate the alloy to the extent that the surface texture is affected.

Temperature of the Alloy

If an alloy is heated to too high a temperature before casting, the surface of the investment is likely to be attacked, and a surface roughness may result.

Casting Pressure
Too high a pressure during casting can produce a rough surface on the casting. A gauge pressure of 0.10 to 0.14 MPa in an air pressure casting machine or three to four turns of the spring in an average type of centrifugal casting machine is sufficient for small castings.

Composition of the Investment

The ratio of the binder to the quartz influences the surface texture of the casting. A coarse silica causes a surface roughness.

Foreign Bodies
A rough crucible former with investment clinging to it may roughen the investment on its removal so that bits of investment are carried into the mold with the molten alloy. Carelessness in the removal of the sprue former can also be a cause for it. Casting that shows sharp, well defined deficiencies indicates the presence of some foreign particles in the mold, such as pieces of investment and bits of carbon from a flux.

 Bright appearing concavities may be the result of flux being carried into the mold with the metal.
Surface discoloration and roughness can result from sulfur contamination, either from investment breakdown at elevated temperatures or from a high sulfur content of the torch flame. The interaction of the molten alloy with sulfur produces a black or grey layer on the surface of gold alloys that is brittle and does not clean readily during pickling.

Impact of Molten Alloy

The molten alloy may fracture or abrade the mold surface on impact, regardless of its bulk.

The direction of the sprue former should be such that the molten gold alloy does not strike a weak portion of the mold surface. It is unfortunate that sometimes the abraded area is smooth so that it cannot be detected on the surface of the casting.
Such a depression in the mold is reflected as a raised area on the casting.

Pattern Position
If several patterns are invested in the same ring, they should not be placed too close together.
Positioning too many patterns in the same plane in the mold should be avoided. The expansion of wax is much greater than that of the investment, causing breakdown or cracking of the investment if the spacing between patterns is less than 3 mm.

Carbon Inclusions
Carbon, as from a crucible, an improperly adjusted torch, or a carbon containing investment, can be absorbed by the alloy during casting. These particles may lead to the formation of carbides or even create visible carbon inclusions.

Porosity
Porosities in noble metal alloy castings may be classified as follows:

I. Solidification defects A. Localized shrinkage porosity B. Microporosity

II. Trapped gases A. Pinhole porosity B. Gas inclusions C. Subsurface porosity III. Residual air

Porosities

Solidification Defects

Trapped gases

Residual Air

Localized Shrinkage

Microporosity

Pinhole Porosity

Gas Inclusions

Subsurface Porosity

 Localized shrinkage is generally caused by premature termination of the flow of molten metal during solidification. The linear contraction of noble metal alloys in changing from a liquid to solid is at least 1.25%. Continual feeding of molten metal through the sprue must occur to make up for the shrinkage of metal volume during solidification. Porosity in pontic area is caused by its ability to retain heat because of its bulk. This problem can be solved by attaching one or more small gauge sprues called as chill set sprues. These act as cooling pins to carry away heat from pontic.

 Void may also occur externally, usually in the interior of a crown near the area of the sprue, if a hot spot has been created by the hot metal impinging from the sprue channel on a point of the mold wall. This hot spot causes the local region to freeze last and results in what is called suck-back porosity. Suck-back porosity often occurs at an occlusoaxial line angle or incisoaxial line angle that is not well rounded. Suck-back porosity can be eliminated by flaring the point of sprue attachment and reducing the mold melt temperature differential, that is, lowering the casting temperature by about 30 C.

Microporosity also occurs from solidification shrinkage but is generally present in fine grain alloy castings when the solidification is too rapid for the micro voids to segregate to the liquid pool.

Pinhole and the Gas inclusion porosities are related to the entrapment of gas during solidification. The gas inclusion porosities are usually much larger than pinhole porosity. On solidification, the absorbed gases are expelled and pinhole porosity results.

 Larger spherical porosities can be caused by gas occluded from a poorly adjusted torch flame, or by use of the mixing or oxidizing zones of the flame rather than the reducing zone. These types of porosity can be minimized by pre- melting the gold alloy on a graphite crucible or a graphite block, if the alloy has been used before, and by correctly adjusting and positioning the torch flame during melting. Subsurface porosity occurs on occasion, the reasons for such voids have not been completely established.
They may be caused by the simultaneous nucleation of solid grains and gas bubbles at the first moment that the alloy freezes at the mold walls. This type of porosity can be diminished by controlling the rate at which the molten metal enters the mold.

Entrapped air porosity on the inner surface of the casting, sometimes referred to as back-pressure porosity, can produce large concave depressions. This is caused by the inability of the air in the mold to escape through the pores in the investment or by the pressure gradient that displaces the air pocket toward the end of the investment via the molten sprue and button.

The entrapment is frequently found in a "pocket" at the cavity surface of a crown or mesio-occlusal-distal casting.

Incomplete Casting
Occasionally, only a partially complete casting, or perhaps no casting at all, is found.

Cause is that the molten alloy has been prevented in some manner, from completely filling the mold.

CAUSES
The first consideration- insufficient venting, is directly related to the back pressure exerted by the air in the mold. If the air cannot be vented quickly, the molten alloy does not fill the mold before it solidifies. In such a case, the magnitude of the casting pressure should be suspected. If insufficient casting pressure is used, the back pressure cannot be overcome. Furthermore, the pressure should be applied for at least 4 seconds. The mold is filled and the alloy is solidified in 1 second or less; yet it is quite soft during the early stages. The pressure should be maintained for a few seconds beyond this point.

 A second common cause for an incomplete casting is incomplete elimination of wax residues from the mold. If too many products of combustion remain in the mold, the pores in the investment may become filled so that the air cannot be vented completely. If moisture or particles of wax remain, the contact of the molten ; alloy with these foreign substances produces an explosion that may produce sufficient back pressure to prevent the mold from being filled.

CONCLUSION
Production of an accurate casting requires development of a precise casting procedure. Many problems can be encountered during casting procedure resulting defects in final castings. Adherence to the casting procedures described will aid in the production of clean, well fitting castings.

REFERENCES
Science of dental materials- Anusavice, 11th Edn Restorative dental materials - Craig ,10th Edn. Applied dental Materials - John F. Mc Cabe,7th Edn. Dental materials, Properties & Manipulation -Robert G. Craig et.al, 5th Edn. Journal of Prosthet Dent. 2002; 87:94-98. Journal of Prosthet Dent. 1988; 80: 691-698. Journal of Prosthet Dent. 1987; 85: 1-5. Journal of Prosthet Dent. 1986; 56: 507-509. Journal of Prosthet Dent. 1982; 48: 99-101. Dental materials. 1987; 3: 125-130. Dental materials. 1993; 9: 177-181. Intl Journal Prosthodont. 1991;4:152-158. J Dent Research. 1990; 69: 67-68.