9- 10

Quality Improvement Tools

Quality is free, but only to those who are willing to pay heavily for it. Philip Crosby

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
I. Explain the seven Quality control tools

Pareto Chart
Cause and Effect Diagram Check sheet Histogram Scatter Diagram Control Charts Graph

Seven QC Tools

The Seven Q.C. Tools were identified by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) as the seven most important tools for use in Continuous Improvement.

They are primarily associated with the Study and Act steps in the PDSA cycle. The Seven Q.C. Tools are often used in conjunction with a step-by-step problem solving process known as the Q.C. Story.

The seven QC tools are Pareto Chart, Cause and Effect

Diagram, Stratification, Check sheet, Histogram, Scatter Diagram, Control Charts and graph

1. Pareto Chart A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or cost (time or money), and are arranged with longest bars on the left and the shortest to the right. In this

way the chart visually depicts which situations

are more significant. Pareto Chart is a special form of a bar graph and is used to display the relative importance of problems or conditions.

Steps in Constructing a Pareto Chart

List the activities or causes in a table and their frequency of occurrence Place these in descending order of magnitude in the table Calculate the total for the whole list Calculate the percentage of the total that each cause represents Add a cumulative percentage column to the table Draw a Pareto chart plotting the causes on X-axis and cumulative percentage on Y-axis. The Cumulative curve can be drawn to show the cumulative percentage from all causes. On the same chart, plot a bar graph with causes on X-axis and percentage frequency on Y-axis. Analyze the diagram. Look for the break point on the cumulative percent graph. It can be identified by a marked change in the slope of the graph. This separates the significant few from the trivial many.

Pareto Chart - Example

Category Cockroaches Rooms temperature Lighting Storge space Stereo noise Television broadcasting Number of Complaints 962 505 350 127 97 83 Percentage 43.2 22.7 15.7 5.7 4.4 3.7 Cumulative Percentage 43.2 65.9 81.6 87.3 91.7 95.4

Water
Towels

54
32

2.4
1.4

97.8
99.2

Furniture
TOTAL

15
2225

0.8

100.00

Pareto Chart
Pareto Chart

BEQ/BOQ Complaints
3000

Percent
100

2000

Number of Complaints

50 1000 962

505 350 0 cock temp light store stereo tv water towel furn 0

Category

2. Cause-and-Effect Diagram

This diagram is also called as Fishbone diagram, Ishikawa diagram. The fishbone diagram identifies many possible causes for an effect or problem. It can be used to structure a brainstorming session. It immediately sorts ideas into useful categories.
The cause and-effect diagram is the brainchild of Kaoru Ishikawa,

Steps in Constructing a Cause and Effect Diagram

1. 2. Write the issue (problem or process condition) on the center right side of the Cause and Effect Diagram. Identify the major cause categories and write them in the four boxes on the Cause and Effect Diagram. You may summarize causes under categories such as: Methods, Machine, Manpower, Materials, Measurement, Environment Brainstorm potential causes of the problem. As possible causes are provided, decide as a group where to place them on the Cause and Effect Diagram. It is acceptable to list a possible cause under more than one major cause category. Review each major cause category. Circle the most likely causes on the diagram.

3.

4.

5.
6.

Review the causes that are circled and ask, Why is this cause? Asking why will help get to the root cause of the problem.
Reach an agreement on the most probable cause(s).

Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Effect Cause

METHODS

MACHINERY

Re-design screen Office layout

Effect on other office NEW OFFICE WORKING METHOD Remove old forms Design new forms MATERIALS Teamwork MANPOWER Training

3. Check Sheet

It is also called as defect concentration diagram. A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data. This is a generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes. The function of a check sheets is to present information in an efficient, graphical format.

Steps in Creating a Check Sheet

Clarify the measurement objectives. Ask questions such as "What is the problem?, "Why should data be collected?, Who will use the information being collected?, Who will collect the data? Create a form for collecting data. Determine the specific things that will be measured and write this down the left side of the check sheet. Determine the time or place being measured and white this across the top of the columns. Collect the data for the items being measured. Record each occurrence directly on the Check Sheet as it happens. Tally the data by totaling the number of occurrences for each category being measured.

Check Sheet - Sample

Application of Check Sheet

Distinguishing between fact and opinion (example: how does the community perceive the effectiveness of the school in preparing students for the world of work?) Gathering data about how often a problem is occurring (example: how often are students missing classes?) Gathering data about the type of problem occurring (example: What is the most common type of word processing error created by the students-grammar, punctuation, transposing letters, etc.?)

When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at the same location.
When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems, defects, defect location, defect causes, etc.

When collecting data from a production process.

4. Histogrm

Histograms provide a simple, graphical view of accumulated data, including its dispersion and central tendency. In addition to the ease with which they can be constructed, histograms provide the easiest way to evaluate the distribution of data. A frequency distribution shows how often each different value in a set of data occurs. A histogram is the most commonly used graph to show frequency distributions.

There are five types of Histograms based on five different types of distributions and each indicates a very different type of behavior. The various types of distributions are: Bell shaped distribution Double-peaked distribution Plateau distribution Comb distribution and Skewed distribution

Histogram
Frequency Distribution
Class 1 2 3 4 5 Lower limit 35 38 41 44 47 Upper limit 38 41 44 47 50 Frequency 1 2 4 5 8

Histogram

Application of Histogram

When the data are numerical. When you want to see the shape of the datas distribution, especially when determining whether the output of a process is distributed approximately normally. When analyzing whether a process can meet the customers requirements. When analyzing what the output from a suppliers process looks like. When seeing whether a process change has occurred from one time period to another.

When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes are different.
When you wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly and easily to others.

5. Scatter Diagram

Scatter diagrams are used to investigate the possible relationship between two variables that both relate to the same "event." A

straight line of best fit (using the least squares method) is often
included.

The scatter diagram also shows the pattern of relationship between two variables. Examples of relationships are : Cutting speed and tool life, Breakdowns and equipment age, Training and errors, Speed and gas mileage, Production speed and

number of defective parts

Steps in Constructing a Scatter Diagram

Collect data for variables about the causes and effects.

Draw the causes on the X-axis

Draw the effect on the Y-axis

Plot the data pairs on the diagram by placing a dot at the intersection of the X and Y coordinates for each data pair.

Interpret the scatter diagram for direction and strength

interpreting the direction.

Interpretation of a Scatter Diagram

Scatter Diagram - Example

Data collected by market research team
Prices of the Commodity/Kg in Rs Demand for the Commodity in Kg

22
60

24
58

26
56

28
50

30
48

32
46

34 36
44 42

38 40
36 32

Fig 8.1.6. Scatter diagram

6. Control Charts

The control chart is the fundamental tool of Statistical Process Control (SPC), as it indicates the range of variability that is built into a system (known as common cause variation). Thus, it helps determine whether or not a process is operating consistently or if a special cause has occurred to change the process mean or variance.

SPC4 is used to measure the performance of a process. It is the application of statistical techniques to determine whether the output of a

process conforms to the product or service design. All processes are

subject to certain degree of variability. Usually variations are of two types:

Natural variations

Assignable variations.

Components of Control Charts

A centerline, usually the mathematical average of all the samples plotted.

Upper and lower statistical control limits that define the constraints of common cause variations.

Performance data plotted over time.

Construction of Control charts

Step 1: Draw the X-axis. Step 2: Draw the Y-axis. Step 3: Draw the Center-line Step 4: Draw UCL and LCL Step 5: Analyse and Interpret

Step 6: Determine Process Capability

Types of Control Charts

Charts for Variables Chartxs for attributes

Mean chart -X bar chart Range chart - R chart Charts for Standard Deviation

p chart

np chart

c chart

u chart

Selection of Control Charts

Application of Control Charts

To establish a state of statistical control To monitor a process and signal when the process goes out of control

To determine process capability

When controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting problems as they occur. When predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process.

When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control).

When analyzing patterns of process variation from special causes (nonroutine events) or common causes (built into the process). When determining whether your quality improvement project should aim to prevent specific problems or to make fundamental changes to the process

7. Graphs

There are many kinds of graphs employed,

depending on the shape desired and the purpose of analysis. Bar graphs compare

values via parallel bars, while line graphs are

used to illustrate variations over a period of time. Circle graphs indicate the categorical breakdown of values, and radar charts6 assist in the analysis of previously evaluated items

Application of QC tools in Six-Sigma

Tool Pareto chart Cause and effect diagram DMAIC Application Anayse Analyse

Stratification
Check sheet Histogram Scatter diagram Control charts

Define
Measure, Analyse Measure, Analyse Analyse. Improve Control

The Seven New QC Tools

Affinity Diagram is otherwise known as KJ Method, which was, developed by Jiro Kawakita. Relations diagram is derived from cause and effect diagram. It shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps to analyze the natural links between different aspects of a complex situation Systematic or Tree Diagram is nothing new but an adaptation from the diagram Functional Analysis System (FAST) Technique in value engineering Matrix diagram is an adaptation from the Feasibility Ranking method Matrix of value engineering, again. Matrix Data Analysis is from the multivariate analysis method whose calculations are a quite complex. Arrow diagram is nothing but derivative from PERT (Programme evaluation and review technique) and CPM (Critical Path Methodology)

Process Decision Programme Chart (PDPC) diagram is an adaptation from the operations research methods.

Application of New Seven Tools

Tool Name Affinity Diagram Relations Diagram Systematic/Tree Diagram Matrix Diagram (many types) Utilization Used to Organize abstract thinking about a problem. Used for determining causalities among parts of a problem. Planning tool. Used to organize knowledge in a matrix format; sometimes includes intercellular relationships. Principal components technique is performed on matrix data. Used to do 'what-fifing' on flow of process. Determining which processes to use by evaluating events and prospective outcomes.

Matrix Data Analysis Method Arrow Diagram Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)

1. Affinity Diagram
It is also called as affinity chart, K-J method. The affinity diagram
organizes a large number of ideas into their natural relationships. This method taps a teams creativity and intuition. It was created in the 1960s by Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita. It is a tool that gathers large amounts of language data (ideas, opinions, issues) and organizes them into groupings based on their natural relationships.

Construction of a Affinity Diagram

Rapidly group ideas that seem to belong together. It isn't important to define why they belong together. Clarify any ideas in question. Copy an idea into in more than one affinity set if appropriate. Look for small sets. Should they belong in a larger group? Do large sets need to be broken down more precisely? When most of the ideas have been sorted, you can start to enter titles for each affinity set.

Application of Affinity Diagram

When you are confronted with many facts or ideas in apparent chaos
When issues seem too large and complex to grasp When group consensus is necessary

Affinity Diagram
Human resource issues Lack of standard processes and measurement Workplace culture

Resources and tools

Too much turnover

No standard systems

Not enough management

support

Not enough phone lines

Untrained staff

No measurement of what is and what isnt good service

Staff feel unappreciated

Staff arent compensated enough

Staff morale is low

Fig 8.2.1 Affinity diagram

2. Relations Diagram
It is also called as interrelationship diagram or digraph, network diagram. The relations diagram shows cause-and-effect relationships. Just as

importantly, the process of creating a relations diagram helps a group

analyze the natural links between different aspects of a complex situation.

Steps in Constructing Relations Diagram

State clearly the issue or problem. Write it on a card and stick it to the center of a board. Determine the factors related to the issue. Frequently these will be the headers from a previously completed affinity diagram. Place cards containing these factors in a circle around the issue card. Determine if cause-effect relationships exist between any of the cards. If so, draw an arrow from the "cause" card to the "effect" card. Do this for all cause/effect relationships that you can find. Analyze the relationships. Cards that have most arrows going from them tend to be root causes. Cards that have most arrows going to them are root effects.

Relations Diagram
Customer focus Lack of quality strategy Lack of focus
Responsibility not clear

Indequate training time No standard TQM method

Lack of knowledge of quality improvement

Lack of communication of information

Confusion of committees without organization

Lack of TQM commitment by top managers

Use of Relations Diagram

Identifying key or driver issues from a list of important issues. Identifying the most important problems for solution when the number of problems exceeds the resources available to solve all of them. Identifying the root cause of existing problems. Identifying key factors needed to make a decision when there is insufficient information available to make a data-driven decision.

3. Systematic or Tree Diagram

It is also called as systematic diagram, tree analysis, analytical tree, hierarchy diagram. Tree Diagram is a technique for mapping out full range of paths and tasks that need to be done in order to achieve a primary goal and related sub goals.

Such a diagram reveals in a simple way with clarity not only the magnitude of the problem but also helps to arrive at methods, which are to be pursued to achieve the results. In other words, it serves the purpose of developing the essential means to achieve an objective or goal.

Tree Diagram

Use of Tree Diagram

Developing a sequence of steps that depend on each other that form the solution to a problem. When it is known that the implementation of some task will be a complex sequence. When serious consequences can occur as the result of missing a key step in implementing the solution to a problem

4. Matrix Diagram

The matrix diagram shows the relationship between two, three or four groups of information. It also can give information about the relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals or measurements. A Matrix Diagram consists of a number of columns and rows whose intersections are checked up, to find out the nature and strength of the problem which help us to arrive at key ideas and analyzing the relationship or its absence at the intersection and finding an effective way of pursuing the problem solving method.

Types of Matrix Diagram

An L-shaped matrix: It relates two groups of items to each other (or one group to itself). A T-shaped matrix: It relates three groups of items: groups B and C are each related to A. Groups B and C are not related to each other. A Y-shaped matrix: It relates three groups of items. Each group is related to the other two in a circular fashion.

A C-shaped matrix: It relates three groups of items all together

simultaneously, in 3-D. An X-shaped matrix: It relates four groups of items. Each group is related to two others in a circular fashion.

A roof-shaped matrix: It relates one group of items to itself. It is usually

used along with an L- or T-shaped matrix.

Steps in Constructing a Matrix Diagram

Determine the factors that are important for making a correct selection or assignment. Select the type of matrix to be used. L-shaped matrices are used for twofactor comparisons; T-shaped are used for 3-factor comparisons in that display indirect and direct relationships; Y-shaped are used for 3-factor comparisons showing direct relationship only. Select the relationship symbols to be used. Complete the proper matrix using the appropriate factors and symbols. Examine the matrix and draw the appropriate conclusion.

Industrial Applications of Matrix Diagram

It is often used in deploying quality requirements into counterpart (engineering) characteristics and then into production requirements.
Establish idea conception points for the development and improvement of system products

Achieve quality deployment in product materials

Establish and strengthen the quality assurance system by linking certified levels of quality with various control functions Reinforce and improve the efficiency of the quality evaluation system Pursue the causes of non conformities in the manufacturing process Establish strategies about the mix of products to send to market by evaluating the relationships between the products and market situations.

5. Matrix Data Analysis

Matrix Data Analysis is a multivariate analysis technique called 'Principal Component Analysis'. This technique quantifies and arranges data presented in a Matrix Diagram, to find more general indicators that would

differentiate and give clarity to large amount of complexly intertwined

information. This will help us to visualize properly and get an insight into the situations.

This diagram is used when the matrix chart does not provide sufficiently
detailed information. This is the only method within the New Seven that is based on data analysis and gives numerical results.

Characteristics of Matrix Data Analysis Diagram

The matrix analysis method qualifies and arranges matrix diagram data so that the information is easy to visualize and comprehend. The relationships between the elements shown in a matrix diagram are quantified by obtaining numerical data for intersection cells. Of the seven new QC tools, this is the only numerical analysis method. The results of this technique, however, are presented in diagram form. One major technique that this method also utilizes is known as principalcomponents analysis.

Use of Matrix Data Analysis Diagram

Analyze production processes where factors are complexly intertwined

Analyze causes of nonconformities that involve a large volume of data

Grasp the desired quality level indicated by the results of a market survey

Classify sensory characteristics systematically

Accomplish complex quality evaluations

Analyze curvilinear data

6. Arrow Diagram

It is also called as activity network diagram, network diagram, activity chart, node diagram, CPM (critical path method) chart.

The arrow diagram shows the required order of tasks in a project or process, the best schedule for the entire project, and potential scheduling and resource problems and their solutions.

The arrow diagram lets you calculate the critical path of the project. This is the flow of critical steps where delays will affect the timing of the entire project and where addition of resources can speed up the project.

Steps in Constructing Arrow Diagram

Select a team that is knowledgeable about the project, its tasks, and sub tasks.

Record all of the tasks and sub tasks necessary to the completion of the
project. Sequence the tasks. Assign time duration to each task. Calculate the shortest possible implementation time schedule using the critical path method. Calculate the earliest starting and finishing times for each task. Locate tasks with slack (extra) time and calculate total slack. Update the schedule as the project is being completed.

Application of Arrow Diagram

Understanding and managing a complex project or task.

Understanding and managing a project that is of major importance to the organization, and the consequences of late completion are severe.

Understanding and managing a project in which multiple activities must take place and be managed simultaneously.

Explaining the project status to others.

Plan and follow up QC inspections and diagnostic tests

7. Precision Decision Programme Chart (PDPC)

The Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)9 is a very useful and powerful method to overcome a problem or a goal to be achieved which are not familiar. With the help of PDPC we can map out all the conceivable events or contingencies that can occur in the implementation stage and also find out feasible counter measures to overcome these problems.

Characteristics of PDPC

The PDPC diagram is a simple graphical tool, which can be used to mitigate risk in virtually any undertaking The PDPC method helps determine, which processes to use to obtain desired results by evaluating the progress of events and the variety of conceivable outcomes. Implementation plans do not always progress as anticipated. When problems, technical or otherwise, arise, solutions are frequently not apparent. The PDPC method, in response to these kinds of problems, anticipates possible outcomes and prepares countermeasures that will lead to the best possible solutions. Establish an implementation plan for management by objectives Establish an implementation plan for technology-development themes Establish a policy of forecasting and responding in advance to major events predicted in the system Implement countermeasures to minimize non-conformities in the manufacturing process to set up and select adjustment measures for negotiating process

Steps in Constructing A PDPC Diagram

Select a team that is familiar with the process and possible contingencies. Typically, this will be a group that has been close to the effort or a similar effort.

Determine the flow of the activities of the plan and place them on a flow

chart or sequence.
Construct a tree diagram, placing prerequisite activities in a time sequence. This can be done either a horizontal or vertical format. At each step, ask, "What could go wrong here?" and place that

contingency on the chart.

Determine plausible explanations/solutions to each problem identified above and place the solution on the chart.

Application of PDPC Diagram

Exploring all of the possible contingencies that could occur in the implementation of any new or untried plan that has risks involved. Implementing a plan that is complex and the consequences of failure are serious. Implementing a plan in which there is generally a time constraint for implementing a plan so that insufficient time is available to deal with contingent problems as they occur.