UEET 601

Modern Manufacturing

Introduction to structure and properties
of materials
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Introduction
What is manufacturing?
Conversion of a material from a primary form into a
more valuable form - adding VALUE to a material
List examples of ANYTHING you know and how you
think they were produced
Involves product
Design,
selection of Materials and
selection of Process
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Manufacturing demands/trends:
product design requirements, specs. and
standards
environmentally conscious and economic
methods of manufacture
Quality issues
flexibility in manufacturing methods
(Why?)
New developments in materials, methods,
CIM
System dynamics, productivity
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Product design considerations:
product requirements and performance
design considered together with
manufacturing
product design cycle and life cycle
characteristics
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING - integrated
product development and design:
CAD, CAM, CAE
Rapid prototyping
Design for manufacture and assembly


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What materials?
There are a wide variety of materials available
today with diverse characteristics that suit
various applications. They are:
Metals and alloys
Ferrous or non-ferrous (Examples?)
Plastics
Thermoplastics, Thermosets
Ceramics, glass and diamond
Composites
Engineered, Natural (examples?)
Nano-materials, shape memory alloys, armorphous
alloys, superconductors
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Other considerations in the selection of
materials:
Properties of Materials
Mechanical - how a material will respond to its
service condition loading - strength, stiffness,
hardness, e.t.c.
Physical properties - density, thermal, electrical
and magnetic properties,
Chemical properties - oxidation, corrosion, toxicity,
flammability
Manufacturing properties - machinability,
weldability, formability, castability, heat treatment
Cost and availability
Appearance, service life and recyclability
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What Process?
A wide variety; usually a product goes through a
combination of processes
Choice depends on properties of material and
product requirements, costs
casting - molten material allowed to solidify into
shape in a mold cavity
forming and shaping - rolling, forging, extrusion,
drawing, sheet forming, P/M, molding
machining - shape formed by removal of material
joining - welding, soldering, adhesive joining, brazing
Finishing operations - polishing, coating, e.t.c.
Structure of Materials
The most important concept in
materials science
Structure Property Relationships

Composition
Processing
Properties Structure
Useful applications

Compositionally Identical

Diamond
hardest known material
transparent to light
electrically insulating
highest thermal conduction of
any material known



Graphite
one of the softest materials
known
opaque
electrically conductive (in the
basal plane)
thermally conductive (in basal
plane)
Why? Processing, thats why.
Structure of Materials
States of Matter
Gas molecules are free to move, no definite shape, no definite
volume container determines volume
Liquid - molecules are free to move but not as free as in a gas, definite
volume, no definite shape container determines the shape
Solids molecules cannot move freely, definite volume, definite shape
Plasmas high temperature, similar to a gas, but many electrons are
free leaving many charged ions
*were going to forget about the Bose-Einstein condensate for this class.
While most industrial products are solids, liquids, or gasses, plasmas are
important for industrial processing.
Structure of Materials
Bonding
Ionic electron transfer from one atom to another, bonding is
electrostatic, common in salts
Covalent electrons are shared by nearby atoms, common in
ceramics, semiconductors, and polymers
Metallic electrons in the valence shells become delocalized and are
shared by the now positively charged metal atoms, common in
metals
Hydrogen bond this is an electrostatic bond between an
electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom bonded to nitrogen,
oxygen, or fluorine, important for water and for nucleic acid and
protein structures
Van der Waals bond a relatively weak bond caused by electric
dipoles, which in turn are caused by random motion of electrons,
occurs in all materials, important for noble gases, colloids (paint,
polishing and cutting formulations, etc.,)
Structure of Materials - Metals
The vast majority of metals are crystalline (atoms have a regular
repeating spacing and orientation with respect to one another).

There are a number of different possible symmetries for atomic
arrangement, some common ones:

bcc
fcc
Structure of Materials - Metals
The 14 Bravais lattices

These represent the only
possible ways to stack hard,
uniform, spheres in 3-D
space. This is true for all
materials, not just metals.

Many more possibilities arise
when multiple atom types are
present.
* James F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, Macmillan Publishing, 1988.
Structure of Materials - Metals
Consequences of crystal structure:

FCC crystals have a close packed plane along the diagonal of the cube, it is
relatively easy to shear parallel to this plane.

In general fcc metals are more ductile, and have lower melting points than bcc
metals.
fcc planes can slip easily
bcc large corrugations, slippage is more difficult
Crystal structure also plays a very significant role in electronic properties, very
important for semiconductors.
Structure of Materials - Metals
Formation of crystals:
During cooling from a molten state crystal growth starts (nucleates) in
many different places, these nuclei grow until they run into one another.
Since the crystals nucleate in random
orientation, when they meet there will
be a boundary. These crystals are
called grains.

Most metals are polycrystalline,
production of single crystals is possible
in many cases but requires specialized
processing.
* http://chemical-quantum-images.blogspot.com/2007/03/shaping-copper.html
Structure of Materials - Metals
Defects in Crystals:
Point
- Impurity (present in all materials)
- Thermally Generated
vacancies a missing atom
interstitial an atom in a position that isnt supposed to
have one
Line
- dislocations
Planar
- twins
- grain boundaries
Most are crystalline (except for glasses) and often polycrystalline, with
many grains like metals.

The difference is in bonding, covalent (or ionic) instead of metallic.
Much more difficult for dislocations to move, low ductility/brittle.
Consider Al and Al
2
O
3
:
Structure of Materials - Ceramics
Al
Melting point 660 C
Mohs hardness 2.75
Electrical resistivity 2.65 x 10
-6
cm
Al
2
O
3
Melting point 2054 C
Mohs hardness 9 (about 100X harder)
Electrical resistivity 2.0 x 10
13
cm
Semiconductors are generally similar in bonding, but with greater ease of freeing
an electron.
Structure of Materials -
Semiconductors
Silicon is FCC with two atoms per lattice
point, this is the same as diamond and
germanium. Diamond is not considered a
semiconductor because it requires too much
energy to free an electron.

In most applications semiconductors are used
in single crystal form (no grain boundaries).
* wikipedia.org
Structure of Materials -
Semiconductors
Conductivity of Semiconductors is modified by controlling defect populations.
Adding small quantities of an
element with one too many
electrons makes that extra
electron very easy to free.

Adding small quantities of an
element with too few
electrons makes a missing
bond in the structure, this is
also easy to move.
* wikipedia.org
Structure of Materials - Glass
Sometimes classified as a ceramic. A covalently bonded network that
does not have a well defined repeating structure, it is amorphous.

Generally formed by cooling a melt of mostly silica (SiO
2
) containing
other glass formers, intermediates, and modifiers (B
2
O
3
, P
2
O
5
, Na
2
O,
CaO, Al
2
O
3
, PbO, etc.) fast enough that it cannot order itself into
crystals. Unlike in metals this is not difficult to achieve.
While there is no long range order there is typically short range order,
Si atoms are mostly bonded to four O atoms.
Melting point is not as well defined as in other materials, glass
transition temperature.



Structure of Materials - Polymers
Covalently bonded chains, made from repeating monomer units
polymerization


C
C
H
H H
H
C
C
H
H H
H
C
C
H
H H
H
n
ethylene polyethylene
Covalently bonded within
the chain, but with the
ability to twist.
Between chains bonding
can range from Van der
Waals to covalent cross-
linking
Catalyst, heat, light
Structure of Materials - Polymers
Huge variety of polymer types
Addition polyethylene, PVC, pAA, pAMPS, polystyrene, etc.
Condensation polyurethane, nylon, polycarbonate, silicones, etc.



Can also be co-polymers (mixed monomer types, block or random, cross-
linked or not, etc.
Mechanical, Physical, and
Manufacturing Properties of
Materials
Mechanical Properties
Manufacturing often involves application of
external forces.
The response of a material to external
forces is important for its use in different
applications
Types of Forces
Tension
Compression
Torsion
Bending
Shear
Tensile testing is a common way to evaluate
the strength of a material, though other
types of testing are also done.
Tension Test
A material loaded in tension will stretch.
L
0
A
F
A
F
= o stress
0
L
L
e
A
= strain
units are force per area [Mpa, psi]
Dimensionless, expressed as in/in or %
What is the relationship between stress and strain? It depends on the material.
Stress Strain Curves
*http://irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/images/cbd/157f02e.gif
Stress Strain Curves
*http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/unit/MECH2402/lectures/hot_cold_working/degarmo_17-7.gif
Proportional, Hooks law,
Youngs modulus, E=o/e
Ductility
The extent to which plastic deformation
takes place before fracture:
Elongation

Percent reduction in cross sectional area
% 100 *
i
i f
L
L L
% 100 *
i
f i
A
A A
Hardness
Ability to resist permanent indentation from a
scratch.
The result depends both on the material and on the shape of the
indenter, it is not a fundamental material property.

Wear resistance is related and sometimes tested
also with a sliding stylus or indenter.

Hardness Tests
Brinell Hardness (BHN) uses a hard ball
indenter
Multiple different sizes and materials can be used for the
ball
Vickers Hardness uses a diamond
pyramid indenter
Knoop (KHN) also uses a diamond
pyramid
A microhardness test, for thin sheets
Rockwell multiple types of tests
Fatigue
Components may undergo cyclic or
otherwise fluctuating loads that may cause a
part to fail at lower stresses than if under a
static load.
Its cause is the movement of dislocations
that eventually form small cracks which
weaken the material.
Fatigue failure is responsible for the
majority of failure of mechanical
components.
Creep
Permanent elongation over time under a
static load.
caused by disslocation slipping, grain boundary sliding, and
diffusional flow
often worse at elevated temperature but that is material
dependent (W > 1000 C, ice even at sub-zero temps),
typically 30% of melting temp for metals and 40-50% for
ceramics (glass does NOT creep near room temperature)
very important for high temperature applications nuclear
plants, turbine blades, steam power plants, etc
also important for more mundane applications paper
clips, light bulbs
Impact Resistance
The ability to withstand impact loads. It is a
function of both ultimate tensile strength
and ductility (the area under stress-strain
curve)
Physical Properties
Other physical properties are also improtant in
material selection and manufacturing decisions.
(examples)
Density
Melting point
Heat capacity
Thermal expansion
Thermal conductivity
Electrical conductivity
Magnetic properties (permittivity, magnetoresistance, magnetorestriction
Other dielectric properties (dielectric constant, breakdown strength)
Chemical compatibility/corrosion resistance
Optical properties


Specific properties are a
convenient way to compare
materials
Material UTS
(Mpa)
Specific
Strength
Stiffness
(E, Gpa)
Specific
Stiffness
Steel
(SG = 7.8)
450 58 210 27
Aluminum
(SG =2.7)
150 56 70 26
Density
Mass per unit volume
V
m
=
[g/cm
3
, lb/ft
3
]
Important for transportation. Strength (of the type required) per weight is
another way to look at this one.
Melting Point
Important for casting, refractories, others
Heat Capacity
Energy required to
change temperature
T m
Q
c
p
A
A
=
[cal/gC, J/gC, cal/lbF]
Important for machining, forming, and thermal management, why?
Thermal Expansion
Dimensional change
per unit temperature
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
i
L
L
T
1
o [1/C]
Important for stress management, expansion joins, glass metal seals, shrink
fits, thermal fatigue, etc.
Thermal Conductivity
Rate at which a
material can transport
heat.
[W/mK]
Important for machining, thermal management (extrusion, microelectronics, etc.)
Electrical Conductivity
Ability of a material to
carry electrical
current, inverse of
resistivity.
RA
l
= o [1/ cm]
Important for electrical applications, examples?
T
x
A t
Q
k
A
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
1
Chemical Compatibility
This is a major issue that needs to be considered along with all of the other
physical properties.

Examples: Corrosion in transportation (air, sea, land), refractories, bridges and
buildings,
Dielectric strength
Amount of applied electric field before failure. [V/cm]

Important in integrated circuits (driving away from SiO
2
gates), electrical
insulation.
Magnetic properties
Important in hard disk industry, transformers, RF processing, others?

Other properties
Piezolectric, ferroelectric, thermoelectric, magnetorestriction,
magnetoresistance. What might these be useful for?

Changing Properties of
Metals, Heat Treatment and
Strengthening Processes
Structure of Alloys
Alloy = composed of two or more types of
atoms, at least one of which must be a
metal. Both solid solutions and intermetallic
compounds are alloys.
Steel the most famous class of alloys
Solid Solutions
What it sounds like, analogous to a solution
of liquids.
The solvent must maintain its original crystal
structure. Either because the solute can
occupy the same sites (with about 15% of
the same size), or because the solute can
occupy interstices.
Intermetallic Compounds
Compounds that form between metals.
Rather than a solution in the same structure
a new structure is formed. Many are hard
and brittle. Fe
3
C is the most famous of
these.
Phase Diagrams
In pure metals solidification takes place at constant
temperature
Mixtures solidify over a range of temperature.
Phase diagrams show the EQUILLIBRIUM situation,
kinetics are not considered


* http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/96ClassProj/sciviz/html/clicktuta.html
The Iron-Carbon System
* Materials Science and Metallurgy,
4th ed., Pollack, Prentice-Hall, 1988
Polymorphic transformation
BCC to FCC (austenite)
Partial transformation to
ferrite (ductile and soft)
Transformation to ferrite
and pearlite (alternating
layers of cementite and
ferrite)
General classes of steels
Low carbon (mild steels) <0.3% C - high
ductility, low strength, for general use,
sheets, plate.
Medium carbon steel 0.3-0.6% C higher
strength, higher hardness, less ductility,
gears, axles, railroad, etc.
High carbon steels >0.6% C hard, strong,
brittle, tool steel, springs, cutting tools
Heat Treatments
Both microstructure and composition affect
a materials properties. Heat treatment is
one way to manipulate microstructure.
These changes to microstructure are caused by phase
transformations and changes in grain size. These effects are
both thermodynamically and kinetically driven.
Ferrous Alloys
Pearlite has a laminar structure which
can be coarse or fine depending on the
rate of cooling through the eutectoid
temperature. Finer structures are
generated by faster cooling.
http://info.lu.farmingdale.edu/depts/met/met205/tttdiagram.html
http://www.matter.org.uk/steelmatter/metallurgy/7_1_2.html

Martensite a supersaturated solid
solution of carbon in iron, achieved by very
rapid cooling (quenching) from austenite.
has a laminar structure which can be
coarse or fine depending on the rate of
cooling through the eutectoid temperature.
Finer structures are generated by faster
cooling.
Ferrous Alloys (cont.)
Spheroidize anneal pearlite heated to just below
the eutectoid temperature for a long period of time (1
day) will transform the cementite laminar stuctures to
spheres less stress concentration better ductility
and toughness
Tempering martensite is reheated to an
intermediate temperature <650 C and some is
converted to ferrite and cementite. This relieves
stress and restores some ductility. (note that this is
NOT what tempering in glass means)
Alloying Other elements can be added to shift the
TTT curve to the right. Allows martensite formation
at lower cooling rates.

Other Heat Treatment
Processes
Annealing Used widely to restore ductility in cold worked
materials or in castings. Material is heat soaked to a specific range
of temperature for a period of time and allowed to cool slowly either
in a furnace or in still air.
In full annealing, there is microsturctural change due to
recystallization, in a stress relief anneal the material is heated to a
lower temperature to reduce internal stresses.
Case Hardening a process where carbon is introduced to the
surface only, allows the underlying material to retain ductility and
toughness.
Non-Ferrous Alloys
Non-ferrous alloys and some stainless
steels have completely different phase
diagrams from normal steels, thus they use
different heat treatments and mechanisms to
alter properties.
Precipitation hardening a 2-phase alloy is heated until it is
above its solubility limit and is then slowly cooled or held at
an intermediate temperature, precipitates will form in the
solid solution, these can interfere with slip propogation.


Non-ferrous Alloys
Introduction
Covers a very wide range of alloys
In general, more expensive than Ferrous
alloys but have other advantages
We will examine the most common
categories

Aluminum and its Alloys
General properties
very high specific strength
and stiffness
good corrosion resistance,
good formability
easily formed into shape
good electrical conductivity

good thermal conductivity

Relevant Applications
transport industry, structural
parts (B747 = 82% Al)
containers and packaging
(cans, foils, etc), aerospace
cookware, aircraft skin
overhead power lines,
electrical applications
(integrated circuits)
heat exchanger tubes,
radiators
Alloys
Two categories: WROUGHT and CAST
Wrought:
formed into shape. Also has two categories:
Those strengthened by heat treatment
Those strengthened by cold working
Major applications: formed products, fittings, tubes, sheet
metal, rivets (Al/4%Cu - ages naturally)
Cast:
final component produced by a pouring molten metal into
a mold
Most popular are the Al-Si alloys. Si promotes fluidity
during casting.
Used mainly for Aluminum castings of components e.g
engine parts (cylinder head), general Al castings
Magnesium and its Alloys
Magnesium - the lightest metal for general engineering
applications; possesses good vibration damping
characteristics
Cast or wrought
Typical applications in aircraft and missile components,
materials handling equipment, portable power tools,
ladders, luggage racks, sporting accessories (weight),
textile and printing (lower inertial effects)
Pure Mg has low strength - alloyed to improve
performance Main alloying elements are Zn and Al
Good castability, formability and machinability
Copper and its Alloys
Commercially pure Cu generally contains
very little alloying (e.g Phosphorous,
sulfur and oxygen)
Good thermal and electrical conductivity -
electrical applications, heat exchangers
Good formability - rivets, rolls, nails,
gaskets

Alloys
Brass - Copper + Zinc; good ductility, corrosion
resistance and thermal conductivity. Used for
radiators, ammunition catridges, plumbing, gears
Tin Bronze - Copper and tin. Good formability and
castability. Castings
Phosphor Bronze Cu + Sn + Phosphorous.
Phosphorous protects the melt from oxidation.
High toughness and low coefficient of friction.
Bearings, bushes, valves, clutch disks, springs.
Cupro-nickels: Copper + nickel; ornamental
applications, coins, heat exchangers
Others - Aluminum bronze, beryllium bronze
Nickel and its Alloys
Ni is ferromagnetic
Major element that imparts strength, toughness and
corrosion resistance -used extensively in stainless
steels
High melting point (1455
o
C), high resistance to
oxidation at elevated temperatures
Generally used for high temperature applications
(superalloys) such as jet engine components, rocket
parts, nuclear reactor parts, chemical plants, coins,
marine applications, solenoids
Nickel alloys exhibit high strength and corrosion
resistance at elevated temperatures especially
when alloyed with Chromium, Molybdenum and
Cobalt.
Examples: Monel alloy - Ni + Cu, used for
chemical applications, coins, pump shafts;
Inconel - Ni + Cr; very high UTS (1400
MN/m
2
); used in gas turbines, nuclear reactors;
Hastelloy - Ni+Cr+Mo; high corrosion
resistance at elevated temperatures; gas
turbines; jet engines; Nichrome - Ni + Cr + Fe;
high electrical resistance and resistance to
corrosion; used for electrical elements; Invar
alloys - Ni +Fe; Low thermal expansion
Superalloys
Important in high temperature applications;
HEAT RESISTANT or HIGH
TEMPERATURE alloys
High corrosion resistance, high UTS and
fatigue strength at elevated temperatures,
good thermal shock resistance
Most have a service temperature up to
1000
o
C
General applications - jet engines, rocket
engines, dies for metal working, chemical
plants, tools, nuclear reactors
A) Iron-base superalloys:
generally contain 32 - 67% Fe + Cr, Ni.
Example - Incoloy
B) Cobalt-base superalloys:
35 - 65% Co + Cr, Ni. Not as strong as Ni
base
C) Nickel-base superalloy:
Most widely used. Contains 38 - 76% Ni +
Cr, Mo, Co, Fe (See Ni and alloys)

Titanium and Alloys
Expensive. High specific strength, high
corrosion resistance even at elevated
temperatures. Properties very sensitive to
alloying elements
General applications - aircraft parts, jet
engines, racing cars, chemical, marine,
submarine components, biomaterials
(bone implants)
Major alloying elements in decreasing
order: Aluminum, Vanadium, Molybdenum,
Manganese
Refractory Metals and Alloys
Principal property is very high melting point
Molybdenum :
Very high melting point.
Main alloying elements: Ti and Zr
Applications - solid-propellant rockets, jet engines,
honeycomb structures, heating elements, dies
Niobium:
Good ductility and formability, good resistance to
oxidation
Applications - rockets and missiles, nuclear and
chemical plants, superconductors
Tungsten:
Highest melting point (3410
o
C), high strength at
elevated temperatures, high density, low resistance
to oxidation
Applications - Welding electrodes, spark plugs,
dies, circuit breakers, throat liners in missiles, jet
engines
Tantalum:
High melting point, good ductility, oxidation
resistant, high resistance to corrosion at low
temperatures
Applications - electrolytic capacitors, acid-resistant
heat exchangers, diffusion barriers
(microelectronics)

Beryllium
High specific strength. Toxic if inhaled, dust from
machining etc.
Pure Beryllium used in rocket nozzles, space and
missile structures, aircraft disc brakes
Widely used as an alloying element e.g with Cu -
springs, non sparking tools
Zirconium
Good strength, ductility and corrosion resistance at
elevated temperatures
Used in electronic components, nuclear reactor
parts. Widely used as an alloying element
Low Melting Point Alloys
Lead:
High density, good resistance to corrosion, soft. Fairly
toxic. Good vibration damping.
Applications - radiation shielding, vibration and sound
damping, weights, ammunition, chemical plants
Alloying with Antimony and Tin enhances properties
and makes it suitable for production of collapsible
tubes, bearing alloys, lead-acid storage batteries
Extensive applications in solders when alloyed with tin
Toxicity is causing it to be largely removed from
consumer electronics solders
Zinc:
4th most widely used metal.
Used for galvanized iron sheets
Main alloying base for die-casting alloys - fuel pumps and grills for
cars, household components
Major alloying elements: Al, Cu and Mg
Also suitable for superplastic applications
Tin:
Main application of pure tin is in coating of steel sheets for food cans.
Tin-base alloys - WHITE METAL - contain copper, antimony and lead
- used for journal bearings (Babbit metal)
Tin is an important alloying element for dental alloys, for bronze and
for solders (with lead)
Low melting point (232 C) makes it suitable for float glass process
Precious Metals
Gold - ductile, good corrosion resistance.
Applications: jewelry, ornaments, electroplating,
coinage
Silver: ductile, highest electrical conductivity.
Applications : jewelry, coinage, electroplating,
electrical applications, photographic film, solders
Platinum: ductile, good corrosion resistance.
Applications: electrical contacts, spark-plug
electrodes, catalysts, jewelry, dental applications,
thermocouples
Others
Shape Memory alloys:
When deformed plastically at room temperature will
return to original shape upon application of heat.
Example 55%Ni/45%Ti.
Applications - antiscald valves in hot water systems,
eye glass frames, connectors

Amorphous alloys
Are not crystalline, made by rapid solidification. High
strength, low loss from magnetic hysteresis. Cores
for transformers, generators.
Nanomaterials
Materials having sizes in the order of 1 -
100 nm.
Currently under very active research
Microelectromechanical devices, medical
applications
Ceramics, Glass, Graphite,
Composite Materials
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
76
Ceramics
Compounds of metals and non-metals
traditional - bricks, clay, tiles
engineered - made for specified applications
such as automotive, aircraft, e.t.c.
Structure
Bonding normally covalent or ionic
usually high hardness, thermal, and
electrical resistance.
Mechanical Properties
Aluminum oxide strength in compression
2100 MPa, flexural strength 500 Mpa
Ceramics are much stronger in
compression than in tension, why?
Stress concentration, by grains, defects,
design.
High strength requires small grain size
Creates opportunities for composites for
some applications
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
78
Oxide Ceramics
Alumina (Al
2
O
3
) spark plugs, electrical insulators, porcelain
Zirconia (ZrO
2
) fake diamond, oxygen sensors (YSZ)
Used in emery clothes/paper, abrasive tool materials, heat engine
components (Zirconia)
MgO used in refractories
Calcium silicates (3CaOSiO
2
, 2CaOSiO
2
) portland cement
Other ceramics
Carbides - used in tools and die materials
usually carbides of Ti, Si, Tungsten
Nitrides - generally also used as tool materials
Cubic born nitride (second hardest material known)
Titanium nitride (used as a coating material - low friction, high hardness)
silicon nitride (cutting tools, diffusion barrier in microelectronics)
aluminum nitride good thermal conductivity and thermal expansion match to Si
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
79
Cermets - combinations of a ceramic phase bonded with
metal. (composite!)
High temperature applications: tools, jet engine nozzles, aircraft
brakes
Silica: -polymorphic material abundant in nature. Bricks,
glasses, quartz. SiO
2
hard - tool materials.
Nanophase ceramics and composites: ductility improve
by reducing particulate size (e.g. by gas condensation)
important parameters: particulate size, distribution and
contamination
Better ductility than conventional ceramics, easier to fabricate.
Used for auto and jet engine components (e.g. valves, rocker
arms, cylinder liners)
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
80
General properties
generally brittle, hard and strong, especially at high temperatures.
Maintain their strength and stiffness at high temperatures
low toughness, low thermal expansion
low electrical conductivity
high wear resistance
thermal conductivity varies
in general, have lower specific gravity than metals but higher
melting points and higher elastic moduli
Phase transitions, ion conduction, and symmetry, can be important
for applications
Properties are the result of chemistry and structure (what makes
something piezoelectric, ferroelectric, insulating, etc.?)
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
81
Applications
electrical and electronic industry insulators, capacitors
sanitary ware (e.g. porcelain)
high temperature applications (cylinder liners, bushings,
seals, bearings)
coating on metals - to reduce wear, prevent corrosion,
thermal barrier (e.g titanium nitride coating on tungsten
carbide tool inserts; tiles in space shuttle to provide
thermal barrier on re-entry/exit to atmosphere)
low density and high stiffness - ceramic turbochargers
strength and inertness - bioceramics (e.g. bone
implants) aluminum oxide, silicon nitride
Microelectronics insulators, diffusion barriers, gate
dielectrics, capacitors, sensors
Symmetry and Crystallography are
important for many of the electronic
applications of ceramics
Perovskite structure,
symmetric no net
electric field
Distorted structure
net electric field
* http://vpd.ms.northwestern.edu/members/Zixiao/Perovskite.jpg
BaTiO3, PbTiO3, etc.
exhibit this behavior
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
83
Glass
amorphous solid, supercooled at a rate so high that
crystals do not form
has no distinct melting/freezing point - glass transition
temperature, T
g

contains at least 50% silica (glass former); composition
generally resistant to chemical attack; have special
significant applications in optics (CRTs, LCDs, TVs,
lighting, containers, cookware, microelectronics
especially chalcogenide glasses)
Structure of Glass
SiO
4
4-
tetrahedral
building blocks
give short range
order, but there is
no long range
order.
* http://www.ohsu.edu/research/sbh/results.html
Modifiers can also
change the structure
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
85
properties of the glass (but not strength) can be modified
by adding various types of oxides MODIFIERS
what does modify the strength?
Properties of glasses: - elastic but brittle, high strength,
low thermal conductivity and expansion, high electrical
resistance
glass ceramics starts as a glass, but is partially
crystallized by heat treatment (usually 70+%
crystallized). The crystalline component has a negative
coefficient of thermal expansion, the glass has a positive
CTE excellent thermal shock resistance


Glass Modifiers
Na lowers melting
point, but increases
water solubility
Ca improves water
resistance
B thermal properties
Pb refractive index
Fe color (brown)
Co color (deep blue)
Ce UV absorption
P diffusion barrier for
sodium
(microelectronics)

Modifiers can alter properties to suit different
applications.
Tensile failure in glass
O
O
Si Si
O
Si Si
H
H
H
2
O
Si
O
Si
O
O
Scratches intensify stresses reduces strength
Water attacks Si-O-Si bonds reduces strength
Flame polishing removes scratches increases strength
HF polishing removes scratches increases strength
Like other ceramics glass is much stronger in compression than in tension
Unlike other ceramics glass lends itself to tempering
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
88
Graphite
Crystalline form of carbon
lower frictional properties - used as SOLID LUBRICANT e.g.
in metal forming
brittle; strength and stiffness vary with temperature
Amorphous C is used as a pigment (black soot) and rubber
additive (carbon black)
high electrical and thermal conductivity, good resistance to
thermal shock at high temperatures - used in electrodes,
heating elements, motor brushes, furnace parts
low resistance to chemical attack - filters for corrosive fluids
graphite fibers - used to reinforce composites
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
89
Diamond
2nd principal form of carbon
Hardest substance known, brittle - used for tool
materials, polishing, grinding, etc.
polycrystalline diamond ornaments and abrasives
synthetic diamond - can also be made into particles
- used in abrasive cutting wheels
other uses - dies for very small diameter wire
drawing; coatings for cutting tools and dies
Diamond Like Carbon (DLC) can be produced as
a thin film for wear resistance hard disks
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
90
Composite Materials
A major development and one of the most
important classes of engineering materials.
These materials are referred to as
ENGINEERED MATERIALS (c.f. Natural
composites - wood.)
Composites consist of the MATRIX - base
material and the REINFORCING material
usually fibers
Widely used in aerospace and structures
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
91
Reinforced Plastics
Matrix is a polymer or plastic
Reinforcement consists of various types of fibers
such as glass, graphite, boron, or aramids
Fibers are strong and stiff in tension but brittle, and
can degrade. Property depends material and
method of processing
Matrix - tough
Reinforced plastic will contain the advantage of the
two
% of fibers by volume in the composite for reinforced
plastics varies between 10 and 60
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
92
Reinforcing fibers: -
Glass - most widely used and least expensive. (Glass fiber
reinforced plastics - GFRP) glass should be weak in tension, why
does this work?
Graphite - more expensive than glass but low density, high strength
and stiffness (Carbon fiber reinforced plastics -CFRP)
Conductive graphite - are a recent development to enhance the
electrical and thermal conductivity of CFRP. Fibers coated with metal.
Used in electromagnetic and radio frequency shielding, and lighting
protection
Aramids - among the toughest fibers. E.g. KEVLAR. But hygroscopic,
complicates their use
Boron - fibers deposited by chemical vapor deposition onto tungsten
fibers. High strength and stiffness, resistance to high temperatures.
Heavy and expensive
Others - nylon, silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, steel; whiskers
Fibers can be short or long, continuos or discontinuous
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
93
Matrix materials:
have three functions:-
support fibers in place and transfer the stresses to them
while they carry the most load
protect fibers against physical damage or environment
reduce propagation of cracks in the composites - ductile
Are usually thermoplastics or thermosets

Properties
mechanical and physical properties depend on the kind,
shape and orientation of fiber
long fibers offer more effective reinforcement
bonding between matrix and fiber is very critical - weak
bonds give rise to delaminations, and fiber pullouts
especially under adverse environmental conditions
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
94
Highest stiffness obtained when fibers are aligned in the direction of
tensile load
Fiber can be re-arranged in reinforced composites to give the part a
specific service condition. For instance if the part is subjected to
forces in different directions, either the fibers can be crisscrossed in
different directions or the layers of fibers can be built up into
laminate having improved properties in more than one direction
Applications
Formica (table tops).
Reinforced plastics typically used in military and commercial aircraft
(B777 - 9% composites), rocket components, helicopter rotor
blades, automobiles (e.g. bumpers), leaf springs, drive shafts,
pipes, tanks, pressure vessels, boats
Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
95
Metal Matrix composites
higher stiffness than polymer matrix composites
posses better properties at higher temperatures than
polymer matrix composites
BUT higher density and difficulty in processing
matrix materials - aluminum, magnesium, aluminum-
lithium, copper, titanium, and superalloys
fiber materials - graphite, aluminum oxide silicon
carbide, boron molybdenum and tungsten
boron fibers in aluminum - space shuttle structural
beams ( high specific stiffness and strength, high
thermal conductivity)
hypersonic aircraft (under development)

Ceramics, Glass, Composite
Materials
96
Ceramic-matrix composites
matrix is ceramic
have high temperature resistance and resistance to
corrosive environments
matrix materials - silicon carbide, silicon nitride,
aluminum oxide, carbon
fibers - carbon, aluminum oxide
applications - jet and automotive engines, deep sea
mining, cutting tools, dies.
Reinforced concrete very widespread use, steel
has a corrosion problem, why does this work?
Polymers: Structure and
Properties
Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
98
Why Polymers?
Easily formed into shape with less energy and
fewer finishing operations
Low density
High corrosion resistance
Low electrical and thermal conductivity
Cheaper than metals and ceramics
But some limitations:- low strength/stiffness, low
service temperature, some polymers degrade
with time in sunlight
Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
99
Formation of Polymers
Short hydrocarbon chains monomers
form into long chains - Polymerization
Synthesis of polymers can be initiated by:
Heat or catalyst addition polymerization
monomers reacting together when mixed
condensation polymerization. By products such as
water are condensed out.
Polymer chains formed can be:
linear
branched
cross linked
networked
Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
100
In most cases the structure is amorphous
although some crystallization may occur
Both of these affect the density and
properties
The degree to which they occur (degree of
crystallinity) can be controlled in the
polymerization process
The degree of crystallinity affects the
mechanical and physical properties:
higher crystallinity implies higher density, higher
stiffness, less ductile, more resistant to solvents and
temperature
Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
101
Molecular weight (MW) - sum of the
molecular weights of the mers in a
representative chain. The higher the
MW the greater the average chain
length. (i.e chain lengths vary)
MW has a strong influence on the properties -
tensile strength, toughness and viscosity increase
with chain length. Typical values ~10
4
to 10
7

Degree of Polymerization - ratio of the MW of
polymer to the MW of the mer.
Example PVC: MW of mer = 62.5
DP of PVC with MW of 50,000 = 50,000/62.5= 800

Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
102
Example: formation of polyethylene form
ethylene






Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
103

Glass Transition Temperature
Amorphous polymers do not have a
specific melting point but undergo a
distinct change in behavior over a
specific temperature range
This is known as the glass transition
temperature, T
g
Below T
g
hard, rigid and brittle
Above T
g
rubbery and leathery
T
g
important in service considerations
and production
Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
104
Additives
To improve characteristics below T
g
polymers can
be blended.
Several types:
Fillers solid or fibrous, improve mechanical
performance
Plasticizers e.g. elastomer, lowers T
g
and
improves toughness
Colorants dies and pigments, impart required
color; carbon provides protection against UV
radiation
Others flame retardants, lubricants (reduce
friction during forming process), cross-linking
agents

Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
105
Types
Three basic types of polymers:
Thermoplastics Polymers which can be raised to
temps above their Tg and cooled (softened and
hardened) without modifying any of their original
material propertieseffects of heating are
reversible
Examples: Nylons, Fluorocarbons (Teflon), PVC,
Polystyrenes
If temp of thermoplastic is raised above T
g,
becomes a viscous fluid (not definite melting
temperature, softens over range of temp)
Repeated heating and cooling cycles produces
thermal degradation (thermal aging)

Teflon
Poly(tetrafluoroethene)
Very non-reactive non-stick coatings for cookware, hardened munitions,
etc.
Discovered accidentally during refrigerant research
Tends to creep at room temperature can be both good and bad depending
on design

PVC
Polyvinyl chloride (polychloroethene)
Huge number of uses plumbing, magnetic stripe cards, hoses, flooring,
electrical insulation (fire retardant)
Plasticizers enabled use and processing
Can be further chlorinated with chlorine gas and UV to replace some of the
hydrogen (CPVC) increases T
G

Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
108
Thermosetting polymers -The polymerization bonds
in these materials are set and permanentthus,
the curing reactions are irreversible (unlike
thermoplastics); "non-recyclable" material, cannot
be melted (will decompose first)
Examples: Epoxies, Silicones, Polyesters,
Urethane (some are thermoplastic)
No well defined glass transition temptwo stage
curing process:
(1)mix molecules to partially polymerize into linear chains
and
(2) set molecular structure by heating, forming and cooling
processes
Better mechanical properties in general than
thermoplastics

Silicones
Contain silicon, carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, and sometimes others.
polydimethyle siloxane
Good temperature stability, chemical
resistance, electrically insulating, non-
toxic, somewhat gas permeable
Polyurethane
Depending on R groups useful for
foams, insulation, adhesives, tires,
furniture, sealants, coatings.
Epoxies
Epoxies
Three dimensional cross linked polymers
Usually applied in two parts
Useful for coatings and as matrix for
composites.
Properties can be tailored by adjusting R
groups.

Polymers - Structure, Properties
and Applications
114
Elastomers Exhibit large elastic deformations, low
T
g
, soft, show hysteresis loss effects during
unloading - differences in curves represents
energy loss (vibration dampening and sound
absorbing)
Elastomers can be "thermoset" by vulcanization
and cross-linking of polymer chains occurs at high
temperatures can also be thermoplastics
Examples: tires; hoses; tennis shoe soles; tooling
(esp. urethanes)


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and Applications
115