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Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 9
Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto 2005 Prentice Hall
Motivation and Emotion
Motive
Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goaldirected behavior
Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior
Emotion
Perspectives on Motivation
Instincts
Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because
Most important human behavior is learned Human behavior is rarely inflexible
Drive-Reduction Theory

Drive
A state of tension or arousal caused by bodily needs
Theory states that motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce a drive and return the body to homeostasis Primary drive
Unlearned drive, such as hunger, based on a physiological state Learned drive, such as ambition
Secondary drive
Arousal Theory
People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment Yerkes-Dodson law
States that there is an optimal level or arousal for best performance on any task The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Incentives
External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior We are often unaware of the incentive Examples
Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry Advertisements can lead us to buy a product
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself Children playing is an example
Extrinsic motivation
Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment A bonus program is an example
Hunger
Biological Factors
Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus

Lateral hypothalamus acts as a feeding center, triggering the onset of eating Ventromedial hypothalamus acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior Paraventricular nucleus influences the drive to eat specific foods
In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord also play a role

Biological Factors
Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety
Cultural and Environmental Factors
Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning
For example, time of day can trigger the body to become hungry
Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume
Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa
Intense fear of weight gain Distorted body image Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles (for women)
About 1% of adolescents afflicted Approximately 90% of those are white upperand middle-class females
Eating Disorders
Bulimia nervosa
Recurrent episodes of binge eating Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three months Body shape and weight overly influence self-image Symptoms occur independent of anorexia
About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted

Obesity
Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today Obesity can lead to increased risk for
Hypertension Cardiovascular disease Diabetes Sleep apnea
Tendency may be inherited

Thirst
Thirst
Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive
Internal cues include level of fluids inside body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions
Sexual Motivation
Biological Factors
Testosterone
Important in both men and women in early development Not very important for regulating sexual activity in humans
Pheromones
Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals

Cultural and Environmental Factors
Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology
Men are very responsive to visual stimuli Women respond better to touch
Culture can influence what is sexually attractive
Human Sexual Response Cycle
Excitement Plateau
Orgasm Resolution
Sexual Orientation
Refers to the direction of an individuals sexual interest

Heterosexual
Sexual attraction to other gender Sexual attraction to same gender Sexual attraction to both genders
Homosexual
Bisexual
Examination of causes of differing orientations is a nature-nurture debate

Other Motives
Exploration and curiosity Manipulation and contact Aggression
Intent is a key element of aggression Aggressive behavior may be innate, although learning clearly plays a role Aggression and culture Gender and aggression
Males
are more physically aggressive

Other Motives
Achievement
Motivation to excel at a task Desire is for achievement for its own sake
Affiliation
Motivation to be with others
Maslows Hierarchy of Motives
Physiological needs Safety needs Belongingness needs Esteem needs Self-actualization needs
Emotions
Basic Emotions
Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions

Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust

Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance
Plutchiks Basic Emotions
Basic Emotions
Some have criticized Plutchiks model as applying only to English-speakers Revised model of basic emotions includes:
Happiness Surprise Sadness Fear Disgust Anger
Theories of Emotion
James-Lange theory
Environmental stimuli bring on physiological changes that we interpret as emotions Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and bodily responses simultaneously Environment gives us clues that help us interpret physiological reaction
Cannon-Bard theory
Cognitive theory
Theories of Emotion
Nonverbal Communication of Emotion

Voice quality Facial expression Body language
Posture and the way we move communicates information
Personal space Explicit acts
For example, slamming doors

Gender, Culture and Emotion
Gender and Emotion

Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation Anger
Men tend to direct their anger outward Women tend to direct their anger inward
Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

Culture and Emotion

Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms Some emotional displays are universal Display rules
Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate

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Motivation and Emotion

Motivation and Emotion

Most important human behavior is learned Human behavior is rarely inflexible

A state of tension or arousal caused by bodily needs

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus

In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord also play a role

Cultural and Environmental Factors

Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning

About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted

Hypertension Cardiovascular disease Diabetes Sleep apnea

Tendency may be inherited

Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals

Cultural and Environmental Factors

Culture can influence what is sexually attractive

Human Sexual Response Cycle

Refers to the direction of an individuals sexual interest

Examination of causes of differing orientations is a nature-nurture debate

are more physically aggressive

Motivation to be with others

Maslows Hierarchy of Motives

Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions

Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance

Plutchiks Basic Emotions

Happiness Surprise Sadness Fear Disgust Anger

Nonverbal Communication of Emotion

Posture and the way we move communicates information

Personal space Explicit acts

For example, slamming doors

Gender, Culture and Emotion

Gender and Emotion

Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

Culture and Emotion

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