Plant Ancestry

Red Algae phycoerythrin pigment - deep water, most are unicellular - many use alternation of generations (a multicellular diploid sporophyte and a haploid gametophyte

Green Algae similar ultrastructure to plants Chlorophytes (phylum name) Unicellular flagellated Ex: chlamydomonas see life cycle p. 567 Colonial Ex: spyrogyra and volvox Multicellular Ex: ulva and caulerpa (see life cycle)

Green Algae Charophyceans (phylum) - similar cellulose production mechanism - similar peroxisome enzyme - similar flagellated sperm structure - genetic similarities - similar phragmoplast formation (vesicles and cytoskeleton complex near the cell plate during mitosis) - both have sporopollenin, a polymer that prevents exposed zygotes from drying out Stop and show PLOP

Plants

They are distinguished from algae because they are embryophytes (plants with embryos) Land plants have: (charophyceans dont) see p. 576 - Apical meristems found at the tips of roots and shoots; a dividing region of nondifferentiated cells. - Alternation of generations - alternate between adult haploid gametophyte and adult diploid - sporophyte

- Walled spores produced in sporangia adult sporophyte has a structure called sporangia which produces haploid spores from a diploid sporocyte. Spores are walled in sporopollenin.
- Multicellular gametangia that produce gametes. Female version: archegonia produces 1 egg. Male version: antheridia produces sperm, many are flagellated

- Multicellular, dependent embryos Embryos develop inside the female parent, receives nourishment from placental transfer cells. Therefore, known as embryophytes.
- Also, many plants have a waxy cuticle to prevent dessication (drying out) and pathogen infection. - Many have special metabolic pathways to produce secondary compounds to deter predators,block uV light, etc.

Plant divisions
Nonvascular (a.k.a. Bryophytes) - No extensive transport system - Includes mosses, liverworts and hornworts

Nonvascular Plants (Bryophytes) Mosses - Many live in moist environments (b/c no vascular tissue. - mosses and liverworts have stomata - sphagnum moss produces peat (partially decayed organic matter) - have rhizoids; long filaments of cells to anchor the moss, no role in water or mineral absorption, not made of tissue. - Life cycle see diagram on page 581 alternation of generations (know all terms)

Vascular Plants (a.k.a. Tracheophytes) - 2 groups: Seedless Plants - club and spike mosses - ferns Seed Plants: embryos are packaged with a supply of nutrients in a protective coat. 2 types: Gymnosperms Naked seed plants, no chambers for a seed (mostly conifers). Angiosperms Flowering plants, seeds develop in ovaries/chambers. Ovary originates as flowers and develop into fruits.

Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes) 4 Evolved in the early Carboniforous. Most early plants (bryophytes and ferns) were limited to moist environments by swimming sperm. All vascular plants have: 1. Life cycles with a dominant (large and complex) sporophyte, gametophyte is very reduced. 2. Roots that are present to anchor the plant and absorb nutrients and water.

3. Transport using vascular tissues known as xylem and phloem. xylem conducts most water and minerals. - includes tracheids (dead, tube-shaped cells) - cells are strengthened by lignin (protein allows them to grow tall.) phloem living, sugar-conducting cells arranged in tubes - distribute sugars, amino acids, and organic products.

4.Leaves are present to increase surface area for photosynthesis. 2 main types of leaves: Microphylls small, spine-shaped with a single vein Megaphylls highly branched, larger have a vascular system (p. 586) There are also some spore-bearing leaves called sporophylls.

microphyll

megaphyll

Seedless Vascular Plants 5 Ferns! See fern life cycle on p. 585 (alternation of generations) Seed Vascular Plants - Have a microscopic gametophyte (thats so cute!) It stays inside the female sporophyte for protection. - Most plants have 2 kinds of spores (p. 593) Megasporangia produces a megaspore which develops into female gametophyte Microsporangia produces a microspore which develops into male gametophyte

-Have Ovules (female) which consist of megasporangium, a megaspore and sporophyte tissue called integument.
-Have Pollen grains (male) which develop from microspores and contain the male gametophyte protected by sporopollenin. -Pollenation occurs when pollen is transferred to the ovule. Pollen grains land, germinate, and grow a pollen tube that delivers the male gametophyte. Most sperm are nonflagellated.

- The fertilized ovule will develop into a seed. The seed contains: embryo, food and a protective seed coating called the integument.
- The seed resists hash environments by lying dormant. - Seeds increase dispersal rate for offspring.

Gymnosperms: naked seeds (not in ovary) -Many seeds are exposed on modified leaves (usually from cones). Therefore, they are known as conifers. - Life cycle see p. 597

Figure 30.6-4

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Ovulate cone Pollen cone Mature sporophyte (2n) Integument Megasporangium (2n) Pollen grain Pollen MEIOSIS grains (n) Ovule

Megasporocyte (2n)

Microsporocytes (2n)

MEIOSIS Microsporangia Microsporangium (2n) Seedling Archegonium Seeds Food reserves (n) Seed coat (2n) Embryo (new sporophyte) (2n) Pollen tube FERTILIZATION Female gametophyte Sperm nucleus (n) Surviving megaspore (n)

Egg nucleus (n)

Angiosperms (Phylum Anthophyta): 6 Flowering Plants: - Flowers are specialized for sexual reproduc. - Pollination occurs with the help of wind (like gymnosperms), insects, etc. (more directed.) -

Flower Anatomy see p. 598 sepals and petals sepal protects flowers. - petals attract pollinators. stamens (microsporophylls) produce male microspores that make pollen grains containing a male gametophyte. parts: filament (stalk) and anther (terminal sac, pollen is produced there) .

Carpels (megasporophylls) make megaspores that become gametophytes. Sometimes, 1 carpel or group of carpels is called the pistil. parts: stigma sticky tip that receives pollen. style leads to the ovary ovary at base of carpel, has one or more ovules. receptacle attaches carpel to stem.

Fruits they are thick ovaries at maturity (Ex: pea pod, see p. 599) - they protect seeds and aid in dispersal - pollination triggers a hormone change that causes the ovary walls to thicken and become pericarp. - Fleshy pericarp: peaches, apples - Dry pericarp: nuts, beans, grains

Life Cycle of an Angiosperm see p. 772 - Most species cross pollinate (p. 600) - Double pollination occurs in most: 1. Diploid zygote is formed from one fertilized egg. The sporophyte embryo develops with a rudimentary root and one or two seed leaves. (monocots one, dicots two) 2. Second sperm fuses with 2 nuclei in the central cell of the (polar) gametophyte. Forms a cotyledon with starch and amino acids for nourishment. See p. 603.

Figure 30.10-4

Mature flower on sporophyte plant (2n)

Anther

Microsporangium

Microsporocytes (2n)
MEIOSIS Ovule (2n) Microspore (n) Generative cell Male gametophyte (in pollen grain) (n) Stigma Pollen tube Surviving megaspore (n) Style Pollen tube Sperm (n) Sperm Tube cell Pollen grains

Germinating seed

Ovary

MEIOSIS Megasporangium (2n)

Embryo (2n) Endosperm (3n) Seed Seed coat (2n) Female gametophyte (embryo sac) Antipodal cells Central cell Synergids Egg (n)

Nucleus of developing endosperm (3n) Zygote (2n) Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Egg nucleus (n)

FERTILIZATION

Discharged sperm nuclei (n)

Figure 30.3-3

Immature ovulate cone

Integument (2n) Spore wall Megaspore (n)

Female gametophyte (n) Egg nucleus (n) Discharged sperm nucleus (n) Pollen tube Male gametophyte (n)

Seed coat Spore wall

Megasporangium (2n) Micropyle Pollen grain (n)

Food supply (n) Embryo (2n) (c) Gymnosperm seed

(a) Unfertilized ovule

(b) Fertilized ovule

Chapter 36 Transport in Plants 3 Types 7 See p. 739 1.Individual Cell Transport of water and solutes. Proton Pumps p. 739 and 740. Builds up a membrane potential outside of the cell (uses ATP). Cotransport through chemiosmosis transports substances back into the cell. Ex: sugar (sucrose) loading from leaves K+, NO3- from root cells

-Hydrogen Ions play primary role in basic transport processes -During cotransport, plant cells use energy in H+ gradient and membrane potential to drive AT of different solutes -Facilitates movement of ion -Ion Channels

-Root Hairs on a root cell help to increase surface area. -Roots and the hyphae of soil fungi form mutualistic association called mycorrhizae -Mycorrhizal fungi increase the surface area for absorbing water and minerals, especially Phosphate Some plants have a symbiosis with Mycorrhizae (p. 745), which are fungal Hyphae that absorb water and minerals

2. Short Distance Transport between several cells. (water and solute transport at the tissue and organ level) 3 Pathways (p. 743) 1 Can pass through each cell membrane (through aquaporins and proteins) 2 Pass through Symplast, which is a cytosol continuum of plasmodesmata 3 Pass through Apoplast, which is a continuum of cell walls and extracellular spaces (very direct route)

Figure 36.6

Cell Cell Wallwall Apoplastic route

Cytosol
Symplastic route Transmembrane route

Key Plasmodesma Plasma membrane Apoplast Symplast

3. Long Distance Transport (xylem and phloem) Xylem unidirectional transport from roots to leaves. P. 748 Increases water loss because of transpiration through stomata (90% is lost can wilt if not replaced)

 Water and minerals that pass from the soil into the root cortex cannot be transported to the rest of the plant until they enter the xylem of the vascular cylinder, or stele. The endodermis, the innermost layer of cells in the root cortex, surrounds the stele and regulates the selective passage of minerals from the cortex into the stele. Minerals already in the symplast when they reach the endodermis continue through the plasmodesmata of endodermal cells and pass into the stele. These minerals already crossed a plasma membrane to enter the symplast in the epidermis or cortex.

 The endodermis, with its Casparian strip, ensures that no minerals can reach the vascular tissue of the root without crossing a selectively permeable plasma membrane. The Casparian strip, located in the transverse and radial walls of each endodermal cell, is a belt made of suberin, a waxy material impervious to water and dissolved minerals. The Casparian strip prevents water and minerals from crossing the endodermis and entering the vascular tissue via the apoplast. Water and minerals that are passively moving through the apoplast must cross the plasma membrane of an endodermal cell and enter the stele via the symplast.

 The endodermis also prevents solutes that have accumulated in the xylem from leaking back into the soil solution. Tracheids and vessel elements of the xylem lack protoplasts when mature and are parts of the apoplast. Endodermal cells and living cells within the vascular cylinder discharge minerals from their protoplasts into their own cell walls. Both diffusion and active transport are involved in the transfer of solutes from symplast to apoplast. Water and minerals enter the tracheids and vessel elements, where they are transported to the shoot system by bulk flow.

Xylem Loading water and mineral absorption pathway to xylem: p. 745 Epidermis (via root hairs) to cortex (made of ground tissue) to endodermis via symplast (waxy Casparian Strip forces water to go through a membrane to prevent minerals and water from leaking out.) To xylem

Figure 35.14

Epidermis

Cortex
Endodermis Vascular cylinder Pericycle Core of parenchyma cells Xylem Phloem 100 m (b) Root with parenchyma in the center (typical of monocots) Key to labels

100 m (a) Root with xylem and phloem in the center (typical of eudicots) 50 m

Endodermis
Pericycle Xylem Phloem

Dermal
Ground Vascular

Figure 36.10

Casparian strip Pathway along Endodermal cell apoplast

Pathway through symplast

Plasma membrane Apoplastic route

Casparian strip

Symplastic route

Root hair Epidermis

Vessels (xylem)

Endodermis
Cortex

Vascular cylinder (stele)

Xylem Transport: - At night, roots pump minerals into the xylem. This decreases the water potential inside, forcing water to diffuse in from the cortex. This generates root pressure, an upward push of xylem sap. If too much water flows in, guttation results at the leaves. - Transpiration results in an upward pull from: adhesion, cohesion, surface tension and negative pressure at the water/air interface, negative water potential at leaves.

Phloem: transfers organic nutrients 8 known as translocation. - In angiosperms, sucrose is transferred from mesophyll cells to phloem by specialized phloem cells called seive-tube members. - Phloem sap can be up to 30% sucrose. (& some amino acids, minerals, hormones)

- Direction of transport is variable, but is always from a sugar source to a sugar sink. Source organ that produces sugar or breaks down starch Sink a net consumer or storer of sugar (growing roots, buds, stems and fruits)

Loading of Phloem see p. 752 Mesophyll cells symplast or apoplast sometimes via companion cells (with ingrowth of cell walls) known as transfer cells seive tube members of phloem.
Loading into companion cells is usually done through active transport via proton pump and cotransport. (This is because seive tube sucrose content is 2-3 times higher than mesophyll.)

- Unloading of phloem is usually done through diffusion at a sugar sink. -Movement through phloem occurs through pressure flow of sugar solution (p. 753) Increased pressure builds up at the source. Lower pressure is at the sink. This causes the xylem water to diffuse into the phloem and move from source to sink and take sucrose with it (rate is about 1m/hour.)

Figure 36.18

Vessel (xylem) H2O

Sieve Source cell tube (leaf) (phloem) 1 2 Sucrose H2O

1 Loading of sugar

Bulk flow by negative pressure

Bulk flow by positive pressure

2 Uptake of water

3 Unloading of sugar
Sink cell (storage root)

4 Water recycled
Sucrose

H2O

Ch. 35 Plant Structure, Growth and Develop. Growth: Annuals complete their life cycles in 1 year or less Bienniels live 2 years Perenniels live many years (trees, shrubs, some grasses)

Plant tissues: Dermal (epidermis, endoderm) - single layer of tightly packed cells to cover and protect Ex: root hairs, cuticle Vascular (transport tissues) Ground Tissue bulk of plant tissue is ground tissue which is found between the dermis and vascular tissues. Mostly made of parenchyma cells. Functions in photosynthesis, storage, support, and metabolism.

Specialized Cells: Parenchyma Cells thin, flexible (no secondary cell wall), most common type, can divide for repair. Found in: photosynthetic cells, stems, roots, fruits, and usually have plastids. Collenchyma cells grouped in strands, help support young shoots. No secondary cell wall (no lignin); therefore, they can grow. Ex: celery strings

Figure 35.10a

Parenchyma cells in Elodea leaf, with chloroplasts (LM)

60 m

Figure 35.10b

Collenchyma cells 5 m (in Helianthus stem) (LM)

Sclerenchyma Cells supporting cells with thick secondary cell walls with lignin. Cannot elongate when mature. Many are dead at maturity (lose protoplasts.) 2 types: sclereids short and irregular shaped, like in seed coats, nut shells or pear grit. fibers fibers that are long, thin, and tapered like hemp or flax.

Figure 35.10c

5 m

Sclereid cells in pear (LM)

25 m

Cell wall

Fiber cells (cross section from ash tree) (LM)

More Plant Growth: Apical Meristems tips of roots and buds of shoots. - Responsible for increase in length, primary growth. (lateral meristems help with secondary growth, increase in width: vascular tissue and cork cambium)

See p. 721 (bottom) for apical meristem Root cap for protection Zone of Division includes root apical meristem. New cells produced here (mitotic division.) Zone of Elongation cells elongate, push tip Zone of Maturation cells complete differentiation and mature. This produces epidermis, ground tissue and vascular tissue.

Figure 35.13

Cortex Epidermis

Vascular cylinder

Key to labels Dermal Ground Vascular

Root hair

Zone of differentiation

Zone of elongation

Zone of cell division (including apical meristem) Root cap

Mitotic cells

100 m

Tissue organization of stems and roots: (on your own) p. 724 and lab manual (p. 106) Tissue organization of leaves see p. 725 cuticle upper epidermis palisade meophyll (tighter) spongy mesophyll spread out (increases gas exchange) veins (xylem and phloem) covered with bundle sheath cells for protection lower epidermis cuticle

Figure 35.18a

Key to labels

Sclerenchyma fibers Cuticle Stoma Upper epidermis Palisade mesophyll Spongy mesophyll Lower epidermis Vein Phloem Guard cells Cuticle

Dermal Ground Vascular

Bundlesheath cell
Xylem

(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissues

Figure 36.12

Cuticle
Upper epidermis

Xylem

Mesophyll Air space Lower epidermis Cuticle Stoma

Microfibrils in cell wall of mesophyll cell

Microfibril Water Air-water (cross section) film interface

Plant Hormones see p. 794