Aerospace Materials

Fundamentals of the Structure of Metals

Behaviour and Manufacturing Properties of Material

Behaviour and Manufacturing Properties of Material

Structure of the material Atomic Bonding Crystalline Amorphous Partially Crystalline Polymer Chain

Mechanical Properties
Strength

Physical and Chemical Properties

Density Melting Point Specific Heat Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Magnetic Properties Oxidation

Property Modification
Heat Treatment

Ductility
Elasticity Hardness Fatigue

Precipitation Hardening
Annealing Tempering Surface treatment Alloying Reinforcements Composites Laminates Fillers

Creep
Toughness Fracture

Corrosion

Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding

Periodic Table

Why is so important to understand the periodic table?

It classifies the elements according to their electron configuration. Each column or group have similar valence electron structures, as well as chemical and physical properties. The elements situated on the right-hand side of the table are electronegative. They accept electrons to form negatively charged ions, or sometimes they share electrons with other atoms

Chemical Bonding

An understanding of many of the physical properties of materials is predicated on a knowledge of the interatomic forces that bind the atoms together. Three different types of primary or chemical bond are found in solids: IONIC, COVALENT, AND METALLIC

Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bond
Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms

Covalent Bond
Stable electron configurations are assumed by the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms

Chemical Bonding

Metallic bonding is found in metals and their alloys. Metallic materials have one, two, or at most, three valence electrons. These valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or less free to drift throughout the entire metal. They may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or forming a sea of electrons or an electron cloud. The remaining nonvalence electrons and atomic nuclei form what are called ion cores, which possess a net positive charge equal in magnitude to the total valence electron charge per atom.

Crystal Structures

Atoms situated in repeating or periodic array All metals, many ceramics and certain polymers form crystal structures Hard sphere model, unit cells. For metals, three simple crystal structures:

Metallic Crystal Structures

Body-centered cubic Chromium, iron, tungsten, as well as several other metals.
BCC
FCC

Face-centered cubic copper, aluminum, silver, and gold

Hexagonal close-packed The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc.
HCP

Bravais Lattices

Lattice Parameter Relationships

Lattice Parameter Relationships

Assignment 2

Define and give some examples of these different structures: Amorphous Partially Crystalline Polymer Chain Define and explain the different tests needed to obtained the materials mechanical properties.

Solidification of Polycrystalline Material

Diagram of the various stages in the solidification of a polycrystalline material (square grids depict unit cells): a) Small crystallite nuclei. b) Growth of the crystallites. c) Upon completion of solidification, grains having irregular shapes have formed. d) The grain structure as it would appear under the microscope.

a)

b)

c)

d)

Solidification of Polycrystalline Material

Single crystals have periodic, repeated atomic arrangement and this can be also produced artificially under controlled conditions. More common is polycrystalline structures, composed of small crystals or grains. Generally, rapid cooling produces smaller grains and slow cooling larger grains. At room temperature, large grains generally low strength, hardness and ductility.

Microstructure of Common Materials

Structure in 1045 steel: Ferrite (light) + pearlite (lamellar)

Cartridge brass - grain boundaries - annealing twins

Anisotropy

The physical properties of single crystals of some substances depend on the crystallographic direction in which measurements are taken. For example, the elastic modulus, the electrical conductivity, and the index of refraction may have different values in the [100] and [111] directions. This directionality of properties is termed anisotropy. Substances in which measured properties are independent of the direction of measurement are isotropic.

Anisotropy

Crystal Defects

a) Interstitial impurity atom, b) Edge dislocation, c) Self interstitial atom, d) Vacancy, e) Precipitate of impurity atoms, f) Vacancy type dislocation loop, g) Interstitial type dislocation loop, h) Substitutional impurity atom

Point Defects (lattice irregularities) Impede dislocation motion

Vacancies form during solidification, and as a result of atomic vibrations. Equilibrium number of vacancies increases exponentially with temperature. Self interstitial is atom crowded into interstitial void . In metals this induces large distortions due to high packing factors, and is not highly probable (will exist in low concentrations). Impurities always exist. Alloys have higher "impurities" Solvent is host element, solute is element in minor concentration. Solid solution if random, uniform dispersal of impurities. Substitution Interstitial atoms must be much smaller than host atoms (carbon .071nm is interstitial when added to iron .124nm, with max. concentration ~2%).

Line Defects (Dislocations)

Dislocations motion allows slip (plastic deformation wherein interatomic bonds are ruptured and reformed). Edge dislocations allow slip at a much lower stress than in a perfect crystal

Line Defects (Dislocations)

Dislocation motion is analogous to the movement of a caterpillar

Line Defects (Dislocations)

Dislocation motion is analogous to the movement of a caterpillar

Line Defects (Dislocations)

Another type of dislocation, called a screw dislocation. The screw dislocation derives its name from the spiral or helical path or ramp that is traced around the dislocation line by the atomic planes of atoms. Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are probably neither pure edge nor pure screw, but exhibit components of both types; these are termed mixed dislocations.

Motion of Dislocations
Formation of a step on the surface of a crystal due to:
Edge Dislocation: Dislocation moves in direction of applied shear stress Screw Dislocation: Dislocation motion is perpendicular to applied shear stress Direction of motion of mixed dislocations is somewhere between parallel and perpendicular to the applied stress.

Slip

Slip is dominant mechanism for deformation. Slip occurs due to dislocation motion, and the slip plane is the preferred plane for dislocation motion. Slip bands are collection of parallel slip planes.

Slip lines on the surface of a polycrystalline specimen of copper which was polished and subsequently deformed.

Slip Planes

Slip planes are those with most dense atomic packing

Metals with FCC or BCC structures have relatively large number of slip systems, and thus are quite ductile (plastic deformation possible along slip systems) Slip systems >5 indicate ductile material HCP metals tend to be brittle due to few slip planes

Slip Planes

Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials

More complicated than single crystals because direction of slip varies by grain. Strength generally increased due to tangled dislocations. Anisotropic behaviour (preferred orientations).

Alteration of grain structure by plastic deformation: a) before: equiaxed grains b) after: elongated grains
Hot working would not produce elongated grains

Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials

Plastic deformation of grains in compression (e.g. rolling, forging) Alignment along horizontal preferred direction

Slip planes

In single crystals there are preferred planes where dislocations move (slip planes). There they do not move in any direction, but in preferred crystallographic directions (slip direction). The set of slip planes and directions constitute slip systems. The slip planes are those of highest packing density. How do we explain this?

Since the distance between atoms is shorter than the average, the distance perpendicular to the plane has to be longer than average. Being relatively far apart, the atoms can move more easily with respect to the atoms of the adjacent plane.

Slip planes

BCC and FCC crystals have more slip systems, that is more ways for dislocation to propagate. Thus, those crystals are more ductile than HCP crystals (HCP crystals are more brittle).

Strengthening

Size of grains influences the mechanical properties

Generally, rapid cooling produces smaller grains and slow cooling larger grains At room temp., large grains generally low strength, hardness and ductility

The ability to plastically deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move, so to increase strength one must impede dislocation motion:

by alloying -- introducing point defects and more grains by "tangling" dislocations through "working" by making smaller grains when cooling the melt

Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

Grain boundaries (planar defects) generally impede dislocation motion more grains produce higher strength High Temperature: grains can slide against one another under load (creep) some alloying elements & impurities can cause embrittlement

Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

Grain boundaries (planar defects) generally impede dislocation motion more grains produce higher strength Grain boundary barrier to dislocation motion slip planes discontinuous slip planes have different orientations

Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

At High Temperature: grains can slide against one another under load (creep) some alloying elements & impurities can cause embrittlement Figure shows the influence of grain size on yield strength of 70% Cu - 30% Zn brass alloy. grain diameter increases right to left scale not linear

Solid Solution Hardening

Another technique to strengthen and harden metals is alloying with impurity atoms that go into either substitutional or interstitial solid solution. This is called solid-solution strengthening. High-purity metals are almost always softer and weaker than alloys composed of the same base metal. Increasing the concentration of the impurity results in an attendant increase in tensile and yield strengths, as indicated in Figures a and b for nickel in copper; the dependence of ductility on nickel concentration is presented in Figure c. Dislocation movement is restricted due to lattice strain field interactions between dislocations and these impurity atoms

Strain hardening

Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed. It is also called work hardening, or, because the temperature at which deformation takes place is cold relative to the absolute melting temperature of the metal, cold working. Most metals strain harden at room temperature. The price for this enhancement of hardness and strength is in the ductility of the metal.

Strain hardening

Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Some of the energy from the deformation process is stored within the structure as STRAIN ENERGY around dislocations and shear zones. Properties such as strength, ductility, conductivity etc. are all affected by cold work. The properties may be returned to the pre-cold work values through the processes of RECOVERY AND RECRYSTALLIZATION. This can be followed by GRAIN GROWTH.

Recovery:

Internal stresses are relieved and subgrain boundaries formed (polygonization) in highly worked regions -- with no appreciable change in mechanical properties

Recrystallization:

New, strain-free grains are formed between 0.3 Tm and 0.5 Tm Depends on prior cold work (lower temp. reqd. due to stored energy) Big grains are soft and low in strength (no tangled dislocations)

Grain Growth:

Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Recrystallization and grain growth of brass

Cold-worked (33%CW) grain structure

Initial stage of recrystallization after heating Grain growth after 15 min at 580C 3s at 580C Partial replacement of cold-worked grains by recrystallized ones (4 s at 580C) Complete recrystallization (8 s at 580C)

Numerical Simulation of the Grain Growth

The grain grows form small nuclei (shown in the 50s and 100s in grey) Each color represents different crystallographic orientation.