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Sumber belajar: Peter Sykes, Penuntun mekanisme reaksi organik, hal 1-100 Fessenden, Kimia Organik I, Bab Alkil halida
Organic Chemistry
The study of the compounds of carbon. Over 10 million compounds have been identified. About 1000 new ones are identified each day! C is a small atom. It forms single, double and triple bonds. It is intermediate in electronegativity (2.5). It forms strong bonds with C, H, O, N, and some metals.
1A
H
2A
3A
4A
5A
. .N .: . .P : .
6A
. :O .: . :S .:
7A
. :.. F: :Cl : .
8A
He
. . .
Be
Li
: :
: :
:N e : :A r :
Na
Mg
Al
: :
. Si : .
: :
. B
. C: .
Electronegativity
Electronegativity:
A measure of an atoms attraction for the electrons it shares with another atom in a chemical bond.
Pauling scale
Generally increases left to right in a row. Generally increases bottom to top in a column.
Formation of Ions
A rough guideline: Ions will form if the difference in electronegativity between interacting atoms is 1.9 or greater. Example: sodium (EN 0.9) and fluorine (EN 4.0) We use a single-headed (barbed) curved arrow to show the transfer of one electron from Na to F.
Na
Na
In forming Na+F-, the single 3s electron from Na is transferred to the partially filled valence shell of F.
Na(1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 1) + F(1 s 2 2s 2 2p 5 ) Na + (1 s 22 s 22 p 6) + F-(1 s 2 2s 2 2p 6 )
Covalent Bonds
The simplest covalent bond is that in H2
The single electrons from each atom combine to form an electron pair.
H
+
H-H
The shared pair functions in two ways simultaneously; it is shared by the two atoms and fills the valence shell of each atom.
We show polarity by using the symbols d+ and d-, or by using an arrow with the arrowhead pointing toward the negative end and a plus sign on the tail of the arrow at the positive end.
d+ dH Cl
Cl
Lewis Structures
To write a Lewis structure Determine the number of valence electrons. Determine the arrangement of atoms. Connect the atoms by single bonds. Arrange the remaining electrons so that each atom has a complete valence shell. Show a bonding pair of electrons as a single line. Show a nonbonding pair of electrons (a lone pair) as a pair of dots. In a single bond atoms share one pair of electrons, in a double bond they share two pairs of electrons and in a triple bond they share three pairs of electrons.
In neutral molecules
hydrogen has one bond. carbon has 4 bonds and no lone pairs. nitrogen has 3 bonds and 1 lone pair. oxygen has 2 bonds and 2 lone pairs. halogens have 1 bond and 3 lone pairs.
Formal Charge
Formal charge: The charge on an atom in a molecule or a polyatomic ion. To derive formal charge
1. Write a correct Lewis structure for the molecule or ion. 2. Assign each atom all its unshared (nonbonding) electrons and one-half its shared (bonding) electrons. 3. Compare this number with the number of valence electrons in the neutral, unbonded atom.
Formal charge N umber of = valence electrons in th e neutral, un bonded atom All One h alf of un shared + all sh ared electrons electrons
4. The sum of all formal charges is equal to the total charge on the molecule or ion.
Formal Charge
Example: Draw Lewis structures, and show which atom in each bears the formal charge.
(a) NH2
(b) HCO3
+
(c) CO3
-
2-
(e) HCOO
: F: :F
: Cl :
Boron trifluoride
: :
: :
B :F:
: Cl
Al : Cl :
Aluminum chloride
: : : :
: : : :
Cl :
H- O-P- O-H
: :
: :
: Cl
Cl :
O-H
: :
:O :
H
:O :
CH3
formal charges
CH3
H 3C
H3C
Hydrogen sulfide
Dimethyl sulfoxide
:O :
:O:
: :
: :
HO
: :
S :O :
::
S +2
OH
HO
:O :
OH
Sulfuric acid
formal charges
Alcohols
Contain an -OH (hydroxyl) group bonded to a tetrahedral carbon atom.
H H -C-O-H Fu nctional group
: :
Alcohols
Alcohols are classified as primary (1), secondary (2), or tertiary (3) depending on the number of carbon atoms bonded to the carbon bearing the OH group.
Alcohols
There are two alcohols with molecular formula C3H8O
HHH H-C-C-C-O-H H HH H HOH H C-C-C-H HH H
or
Amines
Contain an amino group; an sp3-hybridized nitrogen bonded to one, two, or three carbon atoms. An amine may by 1, 2, or 3.
:
CH3 N H H Methylamin e (a 1 amine)
Carboxylic Acids
Contain a carboxyl (-COOH) group.
O C O H Fu nctional group :O: CH3 -C-O-H
Carboxylic Esters
Ester: A derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the carboxyl hydrogen is replaced by a carbon group.
O C O Functional group O CH3 - C-O- CH 2 -CH3
Carboxylic Amide
Carboxylic amide, commonly referred to as an amide: A derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the -OH of the -COOH group is replaced by an amine.
O C N Fu nctional group O CH3 -C-N-H H Acetamid e (a 1 amid e)
The six atoms of the amide functional group lie in a plane with bond angles of approximately 120.
VSEPR
Based on the twin concepts that
atoms are surrounded by regions of electron density. regions of electron density repel each other.
H 4 region s of e - d ensity (tetrahed ral, 109.5) 3 region s of e - d ensity (trigon al planar, 120) 2 region s of e - d ensity (lin ear, 180)
:
N
C H H C H
H H H H C H H H
H H
H H
H H
: :
O H
: :
:
O H C C H H C N
O C
VSEPR Model
Example: predict all bond angles for these molecules and ions.
( a ) N H4 + ( e ) CH 3 CH = CH 2 ( h) CH3 CH O ( b ) CH 3 NH 2 ( f ) H 2 CO 3 ( i) CH 3 COOH ( d ) CH 3 OH ( g ) HCO 3 ( j ) BF4 -
F O C O F
Carbon dioxide m =0D Boron trifluoride m=0D
Cl B F Cl Cl C Cl
Water m = 1.85D
O C
Formaldehyde m = 2.33 D
The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals combined. Elements of the 2nd period form three types of hybrid orbitals, designated sp3, sp2, and sp. The mathematical combination of one 2s atomic orbital and three 2p atomic orbitals forms four equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals.
Energy
2p sp3 2s
sp 3 Hybridization, with electron population for carbon to form four single bonds
Resonance
For many molecules and ions, no single Lewis structure provides a truly accurate representation.
O: H3 C C
:O :
and
:
:O:
H3 C C
O:
Resonance
Linus Pauling - 1930s Many molecules and ions are best described by writing two or more Lewis structures. Individual Lewis structures are called contributing structures. Connect individual contributing structures by double-headed (resonance) arrows. The molecule or ion is a hybrid of the various contributing structures.
Resonance
Examples: equivalent contributing structures.
:
:
:O: :N O: :N
O: CH3 :O :C
: O :CH3 O: C
O: : O :-
Resonance
Curved arrow: A symbol used to show the redistribution of valence electrons. In using curved arrows, there are only two allowed types of electron redistribution:
from a bond to an adjacent atom. from a lone pair on an atom to an adjacent bond.
Resonance
All contributing structures must 1. have the same number of valence electrons. 2. obey the rules of covalent bonding: no more than 2 electrons in the valence shell of H. no more than 8 electrons in the valence shell of a 2nd period element. 3. differ only in distribution of valence electrons; the position of all nuclei must be the same. 4. have the same number of paired and unpaired electrons.
Resonance
The carbonate ion
Is a hybrid of three equivalent contributing structures. The negative charge is distributed equally among the three oxygens.
Resonance
Preference 1: filled valence shells
Structures in which all atoms have filled valence shells contribute more than those with one or more unfilled valence shells.
CH3
+ O
CH3 O
+ C
H Greate r contribution; both carbon and oxygen have complete valence she lls
Resonance
Preference 2: maximum number of covalent bonds
Structures with a greater number of covalent bonds contribute more than those with fewer covalent bonds.
CH3 + O
CH3 O
+ C
Resonance
Preference 3: least separation of unlike charge
Structures with separation of unlike charges contribute less than those with no charge separation.
O: CH3 -C- CH3 Greater contribution (n o s eparation of unlik e charges )
:
:O: -
CH3 -C- CH3 Les ser con tribution (s eparation of unlik e charges )
Resonance
Preference 4: negative charge on the more electronegative atom. Structures that carry a negative charge on the more electronegative atom contribute more than those with the negative charge on a less electronegative atom.
O C H3 C CH3 (a) Less er con trib ution (1) H3 C O C CH3 (b) Greater contribu tion (2) H3 C O C CH3 (c) S hould n ot be d rawn
Bond
C-C
Orbital Overlap
H C C H
C-C C-H
Ethene
H
Ethyne
Shorter bonds are stronger But sigma bonds are stronger than pi
PEMAKSAPISAHAN
Homolitik: menghasilkan radikal Heterolitik: menghasilkan karbokation dan karboanion