How do we define stress?

What is stressful to you may not be stressful to others

Perceived stress is different for everyone

There is no one way to feel or perceive stress Why not just measure physiological responses? These are not the same in everyone either There are short-term and long term stress responses

How do we define coping?

We all do this differently also

There is no one right way to cope with a stressor

People may actually cope by increasing the stress in

a situation E.g. ignoring vs. facing the stressor

Arousal and Stress

Our bodies can adapt to demands required in coping Circumstances can require both long and short-term

changes in activity levels How do body and brain chemistry change in response to stress and relaxation, and how can this radically alter both mood and motivations

Popular Definitions
Lazarus & Folkman (1984)
The relationship that exists between a person and the

environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his/her well-being This definition introduces the important notion of subjective appraisal

Walter Canon
Introduced the concept of homeostasis: bodys attempt

at maintaining a stable internal state Stress challenges homeostasis

Fight or Flight response

Complex ANS reaction in preparation for emergencies

Stress and the G.A.S.

Hans Selye The non-specific result of any demand upon the

body, be the effect mental or somatic Eustress is a positive stressful experience, a state of physical and psychological well being that is associated with increased motivation and the acceptance of a challenge. What is essential to well-being is a balance to produce an optimal level of arousal Too little stress can be as harmful as too much Stress can result from being over or understimulated

General Adaptation Syndrome has 3 stages

Emergency or Alarm reaction - immediate needs must be met, arousal of the SNS and release of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla release from this is the activation of the PNS and rest 2. Stage of resistance - this is in response to chronic stress and requires that you cope for days, weeks or months - the adrenal cortex is important here 3. Stage of exhaustion - intense stress cannot persist without cost - bodily failure, illness and death follow
1.

The Physiology of Stress

2 major components to the physical response to stress: Nervous system Endocrine system

Central nervous system is made of:

Brain Spinal cord

Structure of the Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system is made of: Somatic nervous system

Receives information from the sensory organs Controls movements of the skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

(Primarily serves internal organs) Has 2 divisions:
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic

Sympathetic Response to Stress

Hypothalamus causes: Increases arousal in the sympathetic nervous system
Increased heart rate & blood pressure
Constriction of peripheral blood vessels Respiration rates increase Bronchial tubes dilate Pupils dilate Digestive processes decrease

Sympathetic activation prepares the body for intense motor activity

Parasympathetic response to stress

Serves regenerative, growth-promoting energyconserving functions Its effects include the opposite of the effect of the sympathetic NS Functions under normal, nonstressful conditions Also activated by the hypothalamus

re-establishes homeostasis in the system reconstructive process following stressful experience slows the heart rate & decreases blood pressure decreases muscle tension slows respiration neutralizes fight or flight response

Structure of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of

ductless glands distributed throughout the body The neuroendocrine system is made of those endocrine glands that are controlled by the nervous system Gland of the endocrine and neuroendocrine system secrete chemicals called hormones

Structure of the Endocrine System

Hormones move into the blood stream to be carried

throughout the body Specialized receptors on target tissue or organs allow hormones to have specific effects even though they circulate throughout the body

Endocrine Response to Stress

Hypothalamus causes: The pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) that stimulates the adrenal cortex Sympathetic fibers to directly activate the adrenal medulla The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney Each gland is composed of:
an outer covering: the adrenal cortex an inner part: the adrenal medulla

Both secrete hormones that are important in the

stress response

The hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland (corticotropin releasing hormone CRH)

The pituitary communicates with the adrenal glands (adrenocortocotropic hormone - ACTH)

The adrenal glands (long-term stress) secrete cortisol which helps put the body in a ready for stress state

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Summarized HPA - axis

The General Adaptation Syndrome (1)

Defined by Selye in 1956 Comprised of 3 stages Alarm The bodys defences against a stressors are mobilized through activation of the sympathetic NS Activation of the SAM complex Arousal of the sympathetic nervous system releases hormones (adrenaline) that help prepare the body to meet stress and danger Highly adaptive short term response to an emergency situation

The General Adaptation Syndrome (2)

Resistance The body enters this stage if the stress is prolonged Activation of the HPA complex Arousal is lower But the body continues to draw on internal resources at an above normal rate Outwards appearance seems normal Physiologically, the bodys internal functioning is not normal Sets the stage for diseases of adaptation Ex: peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis

The General Adaptation Syndrome (3)

Exhaustion Continued exposure to the same stressor drains the body further The capacity to resist is depleted Illness results This stage is characterized by activation of the parasympathetic division of the ANS But at an abnormally low level In severe cases, results in death

General Health Effects and Chronic Stress

Uncontrollable frustrating forms of chronic stress can bring severe costs to health

Proneness to coronary failure has been linked to "type A" behaviour (urgency, impatience, competitiveness, ambitiousness, poor frustration tolerance, aggression)
Animal studies show that stomach ulceration is precipitated by chronic stress by acute shock

that cannot be predicted Tumour growth is enhanced by chronic stress in mice

General Health Effects and Chronic Stress

Poor prognosis in human diseases are correlated

with lack of social support, fatigue and psychological depression Elderly people in homes tend to live longer when there is familial support Grief can also increase the probability of mortality Widowers studied and 40% more died than expected within 6 months of losing their spouse Death can be postponed in some cases until after socially significant events (holidays etc)

Health Effects and Stress

Cognitive - Transactional Model

Lazarus & Folkman (1984) Propose that the interpretation of events is more important than the events themselves
It is neither the environmental event nor the

persons response that defines stress

It is the individuals perception of the

psychological situation that defines stress vulnerability, and ability to cope rather than a function of the stressor

Stress is a function of the persons feeling of threat,

Distinguish three kinds of appraisal

Primary appraisal
Initial evaluation of a situation

3 possible outcomes: Irrelevant the event has no implication for the individuals well-being Benign-positive the event may increase well-being Stressful the situation is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging

Once stress is perceived

Harm/loss involves actual significant physical or psychological loss psychological damage that has already been done Threat the anticipation of harm or loss allows to anticipate and prepare for the future Challenge the event is perceived as stressful the focus is on positive excitement refers to the persons confidence in overcoming difficult demands

Secondary Appraisal
Concerned with a persons evaluation of his/her ability to cope with the situation The individual asks 3 questions: which coping options are available the likelihood that one can apply the strategy the likelihood that any given options will work: will reduce stress Reappraisal continuous reappraisal on the basis of new information identical to the initial process may lead to more stress

Coping
People engage in coping behaviours in an effort to

reduce or eliminate stress

This has been described as a process by which

people try to manage the perceived discrepancy between the demands and resources they appraise in a stressful situation

Problem-Focused Coping
This has been described as the changing of the situation by: defining the problem looking at alternative solutions evaluating the implications of the alternatives and choosing the best one to act on E.g. A student might seek out the professor to discuss how they may reduce the impact of the workload

Yerkes-Dodson law stress influences performance

Modifying task complexity shifts the curve left and right

Emotion-Focussed Coping
consists of controlling and possibly changing the emotional response to an event cognitive responses such as avoidance or minimization

the goal is to decrease emotional distress

often used when the individual feels that nothing can be done about the situation

 This involves the immediate feedback to subjects of

Biofeedback

physiological measures
Subjects can learn how to control their physiology

by playing around with them and observing outcomes

Behaviour and Cognitive therapy

Systematic desensitization

This involves the training of relaxation techniques with the gradual introduction of the stressful or phobic stimulus over many sessions

Relaxation
People cannot be stressed and relaxed at the same time If you can learn to physically relax your body then stress will be reduced Progressive Muscle Relaxation is a popular and effective technique It involves the systematic tensing and relaxing of major muscles

Biofeedback
This involves the immediate feedback to subjects of physiological measures Subjects can learn how to control their physiology by playing around with them and observing outcomes