CONTROL SYSTEMS

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

NTTF
 Introduction
• A linear real-time control system can be replaced
with a mathematical model for the purpose of
analysis.
• The model is in the form of linear differential
equations.
• Solutions of these differential equations completely
describe the control system characteristics, including
the transient response.
• Several techniques, available in calculus for obtaining
the solutions of these differential equations, some of
which are quite demanding.

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 Introduction
• Laplace transformation is a method that allows the
solutions of linear differential equations to be
obtained without much complexity.
• In this section, the concept of Laplace transforms is
introduced, and some of the transform properties are
discussed.
• A rigorous treatment of transforms is not intended.
The emphasis is on using a transform table to perform
forward and inverse transformations for determining
the response of control systems.

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 Transformations
• The Laplace transform is a method of operational
calculus that takes a function of time (time domain)
and converts it into a function of complex variable s
(frequency domain, or s domain).
• In some ways, using a Laplace transform is analogous
to logarithmic transformation.
• Before the advent of calculators and computers,
logarithms were used for performing multiplication,
division, and exponential calculations.
• These two processes are fairly comparable.

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 Logarithmic Process
• Logarithm tables are used to convert numerical
terms.
• Arithmetic operations are carried out to reduce
the expression to a single numerical term.
• Logarithm tables are used to find
antilogarithms, yielding the desired result.

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 Laplace Transformation Process
• Laplace transform tables are used to transform
a differential equation.
• The transformed equation is simplified to
isolate the desired variable.
• Inverse transformation is applied to obtain the
desired time equation.

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 Laplace Transform
• Laplace transforms are useful in control system
analysis.
• The time response of a control system can be
obtained by first applying a Laplace transform and
then taking its inverse transform.
• Because the forward transformation leads into a
frequency domain, the frequency response of a
control system can be obtained directly from the
transformed expression.
• The transfer function of a control system is defined in
s domain and provides valuable information about
stability and performance of a closed-loop system.
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 Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform of a function of time, f(t), is
defined as the integral

This function is defined for every s, which results

in convergence of the integral.

The variable s is a complex variable (s =σ+ jw).

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 Laplace Transforms
• Forward Laplace Transformation
– The process of converting a time domain function
into s domain is known as forward Laplace
transformation, or simply forward transformation.
• Inverse Laplace Transformation
– The process of converting an s-domain function
back into a time-domain function is called the
inverse Laplace transformation, or simply inverse
transformation.

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 Transform Notation
• The forward Laplace transformation process is
indicated by the letter L;
– for example, L(f(t)) = F(s).
• The inverse Laplace transformation process is
indicated by L -1;
– for example, f(t) ==L–1 (F(s)).
• Lowercase letters with or without a t in
parentheses are used to indicate functions of
time;
– for example, f(t), x(t), y(t), f, x, and y.
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 Transform Notation
• Uppercase letters with an s in parentheses are
used to indicate transformed functions;
– for example, F(s), X(s), and Y(s).
• Uppercase letters without a t or an s in
parentheses are used to indicate constants;
– for example, F, X, and Y.

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 Examples
The following are some examples of constant,
time-domain, and s-domain terms.

a. Y constant
b. x(t) time-domain function
c. v time-domain function
d. X(s) s-domain function
e. E constant
f. Z(s) s-domain function

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 Rules of Transformation
• A number of rules have been developed to aid
in performing forward and inverse Laplace
transformation.

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 Rule 1
• Multiplication (or Division) by a Constant
– When a function is multiplied by a constant, the
Laplace transformation is the product of the
original transform and the constant.
– Let K be a constant and let L(f(t)) = F(s), then
L[Kf(t)] = KF (s)
• Similarly, if C is a constant and L[f(t)] = F(s),
then

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 Rule 2
• Sum (or Difference) of Two Functions
– The transform of a sum of two time functions is
equal to the sum of their individual transforms.
– Let L[f1(t)] = F1(s),and L[f2(t)] = F2(s),then
– L[ f1(t) + f2(t)] = L[ f1(t)] + L[ f2(t)]
– = F1(s) + F2(S)

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 Rule 3
• Derivative of a Function
– First Derivative
• The transform of the first derivative of a time function
is given as

where F(s) =L[f(t)] and the term f(O) is the value of

function f(t) at time t = 0 (also known as the initial value).

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 Rule 3
• Second Derivative
– The transform of the second derivative of a time
function is given as

where F(s) = L[f(t)], f(O) is the value of function f(t)

at time t =0 (initial value), and df(O)/dt is the value of
the first derivative of function f(t) at time t = o.

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 Note on rules
For a function with zero initial values, the
transformation simplifies to

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 Example
• The current i(t) flowing into a 1-µF capacitor
is related to capacitor voltage v through the
following equation.

• Determine the Laplace transform of the

current. Initially, the capacitor has no voltage
across it (v(O) = 0, zero initial condition).
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 Solution
• Take the Laplace transform of both sides of
the equation

• Because the initial value of capacitor voltage

v(O) is zero, the final expression is
1(s) = sV(s)

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 Example
• Repeat above example, assuming that the
capacitor was initially (at time t = 0) charged,
with the voltage across capacitor being 1.5 V.

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 Solution
From the previous example, the transformed
equation is
I(s) = sV(s) – v(O)
Substituting the value of v(O) (initial
condition),
I(s) = sV(s) – 1.5

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 Rule 4
• Integral of a Function
– The transform of the first integral of a time function is
given as

– where F(s) = L[f(t)], f(O)is the value of function f(t) at time

t =0 (initial value), and ∫f(O)dt is the value of integral of
function at time t = 0 (initial value). For functions with
zero initial values, the transformation simplifies to

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 Example
• Find the Laplace transform of the following.
Assume zero initial conditions.
– a. ∫ i(t)dt
– b. 10∫ i(t)dt

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 Solution
a. Here i(t) is the time function. The Laplace
transform of i(t) is

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 Solution
b. Because 10 is a constant, it is transparent to
the transformation process (rule 2).

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 Rule 5
• Initial Value Theorem
– The initial value (t → 0) of a time function f(t)
whose transform is F(s) is given by the following
limit:

– This theorem is useful in determining the initial

value of the function f(t) from F(s) without
performing the inverse Laplace transformation.
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 Example
• Current through a series RL circuit, when subjected to an
applied voltage, is given by , the following equation

– Where E= Battery voltage (10V)

– R=series resistance (100Ω)
– L= series inductance (10mH)
• Determine the (instantaneous) value of current immediately
after the application of voltage. Assume that before the voltage
was applied, no current was flowing in the circuit and that
there was no magnetic field present across the coil.
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 Solution
Because the Laplace transform of the current l(s) is given,
the initial value of the current can be obtained simply by
applying the initial value theorem.

This is the expected result, because inductance offers almost an

infinite resistance to current buildup from zero (initial state) value.

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 Rule 6
• Final Value Theorem
– The final value (t → ∞) of a time function f(t) with
transform F(s) is given by the following limit:

– This theorem is useful in determining the final

value (steady state) of the function f(t) from F(s)
without performing the inverse Laplace
transformation.

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 Example
• . Determine the final (steady-state) value of
current in last example

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 Solution

The final value of current in the circuit (time t → ∞) can

be obtained by applying the final value theorem.

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