Second Term

Grade 9 Science

Learning Tasks
Atoms History of Atoms Activity Assignment

Atoms
Smallest particle of an element that has all the properties of matter:
Protons- particles in the nucleus with positive charge Electrons- particles orbiting around nucleus with negative charge Neutrons- particles in the nucleus with no charge

Inside an Atom

Sub-Atomic Particles
Part of Atom Electron Charge Location Mass/Size

- negative

outside nucleus

.0006 amu
(too little to count)

Proton

+ positive

inside nucleus 1 amu

Neutron

no charge

inside nucleus 1 amu

Brief History
ATOMS

 The

atomic model has changed throughout the centuries, starting in 400 BC, when it looked like a

billiard ball

Democritus

This is the Greek philosopher Democritus who began the search for a description of matter more than 2400 years ago. He asked: Could matter be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, or was there a limit to the number of times a piece of matter could be divided?

400 BC

Atomos
His theory: Matter could not be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, eventually the smallest possible piece would be obtained. This piece would be indivisible. He named the smallest piece of matter atomos, meaning not to be cut.

Atomos
To Democritus, atoms were small, hard particles that were all made of the same material but were different shapes and sizes. Atoms were infinite in number, always moving and capable of joining together.

This theory was ignored and forgotten for more than 2000 years!

Why?

The eminent philosophers of the time, Aristotle and Plato, had a more respected, (and ultimately wrong) theory.

Aristotle and Plato favored the earth, fire, air and water approach to the nature of matter. Their ideas held sway because of their eminence as philosophers. The atomos idea was buried for approximately 2000 years.

Daltons Model

In the early 1800s, the English Chemist John Dalton performed a number of experiments that eventually led to the acceptance of the idea of atoms.

Daltons Theory
He deduced that all elements are composed of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible particles. Atoms of the same element are exactly alike. Atoms of different elements are different. Compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements.

.
This

theory became one of the foundations of modern chemistry.

Thomsons Plum Pudding Model

In

1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson provided the first hint that an atom is made of even smaller particles.

He proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called the Plum Pudding model.

Thomson Model

Atoms were made from a positively charged substance with negatively charged electrons scattered about, like raisins in a pudding.

Thomson Model

Thomson studied the passage of an electric current through a gas.

As the current passed through the gas, it gave off rays of negatively charged particles.

Thomson Model

This surprised Thomson, because the atoms of the gas were uncharged. Where had the negative charges come from?

Where did they come from?

Thomson concluded that the negative charges came from within the atom. A particle smaller than an atom had to exist. The atom was divisible! Thomson called the negatively charged corpuscles, today known as electrons. Since the gas was known to be neutral, having no charge, he reasoned that there must be positively charged particles in the atom. But he could never find them.

Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

In 1908, the English physicist Ernest Rutherford was hard at work on an experiment that seemed to have little to do with unraveling the mysteries of the atomic structure.

 Rutherfords

experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny positively charged particles at a thin sheet of gold foil (2000 atoms thick)

 Most of the positively charged bullets passed right through the gold atoms in the sheet of gold foil without changing course at all. Some of the positively charged bullets, however, did bounce away from the gold sheet as if they had hit something solid. He knew that positive charges repel positive charges.

This could only mean that the gold atoms in the sheet were mostly open space. Atoms were not a pudding filled with a positively charged material.

Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small, dense, positively charged center that repelled his positively charged bullets. He called the center of the atom the nucleus The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole.

Rutherford

Rutherford reasoned that all of an atoms positively charged particles were contained in the nucleus. The negatively charged particles were scattered outside the nucleus around the atoms edge.

 In

1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed an improvement. In his model, he placed each electron in a specific energy level.

Bohr Model

Bohr Model

Planetary Model

According to Bohrs atomic model, electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are located at certain distances from the nucleus.

Quantum Mechanical Model

Indivisible

Electron

Nucleus Orbit

Electron Cloud

Greek (Democritus) Dalton

Thomson

X
X X

Rutherford
Bohr Quantum Mechanical

X
X X

X
X X X X X

Periodic Table

Using the Periodic Table

17

Atomic Number
Equal to # protons = # electrons Periodic Table is arranged by this number

Cl
35.5

Symbol
Shorthand for the element Note 2nd letter is always lowercase

Atomic Mass Number

Total AVERAGE mass of Protons + Neutrons + Electrons

Electron Energy Levels

Electrons are arranged in Shells around nucleus in predictable locations Fill seats closest to nucleus first (concert best seats) Seats available
Shell Shell Shell Shell Shell Shell #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 2 electrons 8 electrons 8 electrons 18 electrons 32 electrons 50 electrons

Ex. Carbon has 6 total electrons so

Two electrons on first energy level Four electrons on second energy level Question: Could we fit more electrons on the second energy level if there were more electrons in carbon??

Atomic Structure
17

Total # of protons and electrons (in a neutral atom) 17 protons in nucleus 17 electrons orbiting nucleus

Cl
35.5

Element Name Chlorine

Total Mass of Nucleus 36 - 17 = 18 neutrons

(Round Atomic Mass)

Notice: electrons follow energy level rules from previous slide.

Atomic Mass Fractions?

Look at Chlorine (atomic number 17) Atomic mass of 35.5? I dont get it! Where does the 35.5 come from?

0.5 protons? 0.5 neutrons? No

Atomic Mass = average number of protons and neutrons in nature

More Practice

Determine the name, number of protons, neutrons and electrons for each element shown and draw
15 8 26

P
31

O
16

Fe
56

Isotopes

An isotope is a variation of an element (same protons) but can have diff. # of neutrons
Ex: carbon (atomic mass = 12.011)
Carbon (14) and carbon (12) exist in nature

Ions
Change in electrons which gives an atom a charge (+ or -) You can only add or subtract electrons!

(protons dont change)

Ex.

Count the number of electrons below

Carbon ion (-1 charge) 7 electrons (-) 6 protons (+)

Neutral Carbon 6 electrons (-) 6 protons (+)

Carbon ion (+1 charge) 5 electrons (-) 6 protons (+)

Valence Electrons

An electron on the outermost energy shell of an atom Important to understand because this is a key factor in how atoms will BOND with each other Octet rule stable atom will have 8 electrons in that outer shell Practice Valence # of Chlorine? Neon? Nitrogen? Oxygen?

Electron Dot Diagrams

a diagram that represents the # of valence electrons in an atom of an element. The amount of electrons is displayed by dots around the symbol of the element. Ex.

http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/le ssons/lesson38.htm

Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic-

Two elements bond by transferring electrons to create ions that attract together (+ is attracted to - after an electron is transferred)

Covalentbond type)

Two elements bond by sharing electrons (strongest

Metallic-

Two metals bond and form a common electron cloud. This is a cluster of shared electrons (weakest bond type)

Examples of Bonding
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xTx_DWboEVs http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wpDicW_MQQ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqjcCvzWwww http://lc.brooklyn.cuny.edu/smarttutor/core3_22/Bonds.html

Predicting Bonds
Ionic Bond = metal to non-metal Covalent = non-metal to non-metal Metallic = metal to metal

Do you understand why? HINT: the numbers at the top of the table indicate the # of valence electrons for each column

Oxidation Numbers

Oxidation numbers are assigned to each element They represent a predicted charge of an atom/ion when it bonds with another element.
(tells us if the atom would prefer give or take electrons, and how many).

They help us to predict what compounds will form when two elements get together. Oxidation numbers are labeled like this:
Na 1+ O 2-

How to Use Oxidation Numbers

Oxidation Number indicates the number of electrons lost, gained or shared when bonding with other atoms.

Ex. Na wants to lose an electron. If an electron is lost, it becomes a +1 charge SO: oxidation number for Na = 1+ Ex. Cl wants to gain an electron. If an electron is gained, it becomes a -1 charge SO: oxidation number for Cl = 1-

Oxidation Numbers

Each column going down the periodic table has elements with the same oxidation number.

Label the oxidation numbers on your periodic table at the top of each column as shown here:

1+ 2+

3+ 4(+/-) 3- 2- 1- 0

Rules for using oxidation numbers to create compounds

1. Positive ions can only bond with negative ions and vice versa 2. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a compound must be zero (the key is to stay balanced) 3. If the oxidation numbers are not equal to zero, then you must add additional elements until they balance at zero.

4. When writing a formula the symbol of the Positive (+) element is followed by the symbol of the negative (-) element.

Examples of Forming Compounds

Ex. Na (+1) + Cl (-1) = NaCl
Are these oxidation numbers already equal to zero? If so, you dont need to add any extra elements to combine them into a compound, so the answer is simply NaCl

Ex. H (+1) + O (-2) = H2O

How many +1 would you need to balance the -2 to zero? Since you need 2 atoms of the 1+ to balance the 2- to zero the resulting compound would be H2O In other words: to combine H with O, you MUST have 2 H to balance the oxidation numbers to zero 2+ and 2- = ZERO

Ex. Al (+3) + S (-2) = Al2S3

This one is trickywe are not even close to balancing + and - to zero. Because of this we must have more than one Al and more than one S in our final equation. By using 2 Aluminums instead of just1 we would have 6+ By using 3 sulfers instead of just 1 we would have 6Since these are now equal to zero, we combine 2 Aluminums and 3 Sulfers to make Al 2S3

Chemical vs. Physical Change

Physical Change: A change that can occur without changing the identity of the substance.
Ex. Solid, Liquid, Gas (Phase change)

Chemical Change: Process by which a substance becomes a new and different substance
Ex. Fire

Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reaction: a process in which the physical and chemical properties of the original substance change as new substances with different physical and chemical properties are formed

Chemical Reaction Basics

H2 + O2 --> H2O
Reactants Products

Reactants- substance that enters into a reaction Products- substance that is produced by a chemical reaction

Evidence of Chemical Change

EPOCH is an acronym that stands for evidence that a chemical reaction has occurred.

E P O C H

Effervescence (bubbles and/or gives off gas) Precipitate (solid crystals form) Odor (change of smell is detected) Color change Heat (reaction either heats up or cools down)
Does sighting evidence of a chemical reaction mean that a chemical reaction has undoubtedly taken place?

Types of Reactions
Romance Chemistry :)

Synthesis- Marriage/Dating A + B = AB Decomposition- Divorce/Breakup AB= A + B Single-Replacement- Dance Cut In A + BC = AC + B Double-Replacement- Dancing couples switch partners. AB + CD = AC + BD

Cartoon Chemistry

This is an example of synthesis

Cartoon Chemistry

This is an example of a decomposition

Cartoon Chemistry

This is an example of a single replacement

Cartoon Chemistry

This is an example of a double replacement

Reaction Types Review

Match each chemical reaction with one of the reaction types on your chemical cartoons.
Zn + 2HCl H2 + ZnCl2 N2 + 3H2 2NH3 2KI + Pb(NO3)2 2KNO3 + PbI2 2MgCl Mg2 + Cl2

Conservation of Mass
Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. What goes in must come out. So we must balance equations to conserve mass.

Balancing Equations

Rules:
We can not add or subtract subscripts from either side of the equation We can only add coefficients to the front of each compound

Ex.

2H2 + O2 --> 2H2O

H=4 O=2 H=4 O=2

Before

must match

After

See Balancing Act worksheet for more examples

Solution Chemistry
Mixtures: Matter that consists of two or more substances mixed but not chemically combined Solutions: Homogeneous Mixture in which one substance is dissolved into another
Solute = Substance that gets dissolved (ex. Kool-Aid powder) Solvent = Substance that does the dissolving (ex. Water)

Acid: Compound with a pH below 7 that tastes sour and is a proton donor.
Ex. Citrus foods

Base: Compound with a pH above 7 that tastes bitter and is a proton acceptor
Ex. Cleaning Products (soap)

Acids and Bases

-

Solutions can be acidic or basic Acids and Bases have unique properties when dissolved in water - Acids = sour taste - Bases = bitter taste Indicators are substances that change color when mixed with a solution, which helps to determine if a substance is an acid or a base. (pH paper, Litmus paper, cabbage juice)

Acids
Proton donors (H+) Acids contain hydrogen and produce positive ions (H+) when dissolved in water Acids = good electrolytes Examples of acids:

Lemon Juice Citric Acid Carbonic Acid HCl

Bases
Proton acceptors Bases contain hydroxide ions (OH-) when mixed with water. Bases = weak electrolytes Examples of bases:

Ammonia Soap Bleach (chlorine)

Combining Acids and Bases

-Mixing acids and bases is a balancing act. (like a teeter-totter)

Acid + Base = neutral (water and salt)

Combining Acids and Bases

EXAMPLE: Acid + Base = neutral (water and salt)

H+ Acid

+ OH- HOH + Salt Base water

NaOH H2O + NaCl

Ex. HCl +

Measuring Acids and Bases

pH scale- used to measure the acidity of a solution. Measure pH with indicators pH scale goes from 0 14 0 = very acidic 14 = very basic 7 = neutral

Acids and Bases