Chapter 3

Electric Flux Density, Gausss Law,

and Divergence
3.1 Electric Flux Density
Faradays Experiment
Electric Flux Density, D
Units: C/m
2
Magnitude: Number of flux lines (coulombs)
crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by
the surface area.
Direction: Direction of flux lines (same direction
as E).
For a point charge:

For a general charge distribution,
D3.1
Given a 60-uC point charge located at the origin, find the
total electric flux passing through:
(a) That portion of the sphere r = 26 cm bounded by
0 < theta < Pi/2 and 0 < phi < Pi/2
D3.2
Calculate D in rectangular coordinates at point P(2,-3,6)
produced by : (a) a point charge QA = 55mC at Q(-2,3,-6)
P
2
3
6
|

\
|
|
|
.
:= QA 55 10
3
:=
Q
2
3
6
|

\
|
|
|
.
:=
c
0
8.85410
12
:= R P Q := r
P Q
P Q
:=
D
QA
4 t R
( )
2

r := D
6.38 10
6

9.57 10
6

1.914 10
5

\
|
|
|
|
|
.
=
(b) a uniform line charge p
LB
= 20 mC/m on the x axis
(c) a uniform surface charge density p
SC
= 120 uC/m
2
on
the plane z = -5 m.
Gausss Law
The electric flux passing through any
closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
The integration is performed over a closed
surface, i.e. gaussian surface.
We can check Gausss law with a point
charge example.
Symmetrical Charge Distributions
Gausss law is useful under two
conditions.
1. D
S
is everywhere either normal or
tangential to the closed surface, so that
D
S
.
dS becomes either D
S
dS or zero,
respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for
which D
S
.
dS is not zero, D
S
= constant.
Gausss law simplifies the task of finding D near an
infinite line charge.
Infinite coaxial cable:
Differential Volume Element
If we take a small enough closed surface,
then D is almost constant over the surface.
D x y , z , ( )
8 x y z
4

4 x
2
z
4

16 x
2
y z
3

\
|
|
|
|
|
.
:=
1
3
y
0
2
x D x y , 2 , ( )
2
10
12

(
(
(
]
d
(
(
(
]
d 1.365 10
9
=
D3.6a
D x y , z , ( )
8 x y z
4

4 x
2
z
4

16 x
2
y z
3

\
|
|
|
|
|
.
10
12
:=
c
0
8.85410
12
:=
E
D 2 1 , 3 , ( )
c
0
:=
P
2
1
3
|

\
|
|
|
.
:= E
146.375
146.375
195.166
|

\
|
|
|
.
=
D3.6b
Divergence
Divergence is the outflow of flux from a small
closed surface area (per unit volume) as
volume shrinks to zero.

-Water leaving a bathtub
-Closed surface (water itself) is essentially incompressible
-Net outflow is zero
-Air leaving a punctured tire
-Divergence is positive, as closed surface (tire) exhibits net
outflow
Mathematical definition of divergence
div D
( )
oD
x
ox
oD
y
oy
+
oD
z
oz
+
|

\
|
|
.
- Cartesian
div D
( )
0 Av
S
D
Av
(
(
(
]
d lim

Surface integral as the volume element (Av) approaches zero

D is the vector flux density
Cylindrical
Spherical
div D
( )
1

o
o
D

( )
1

oD
|
o|
+
oD
z
oz
+
div D
( )
1
r
2
o D
r
r
2

|
\
|
.
or

1
r sin u
( )

o D
u
sin u
( )

( )
ou
+
1
r sin u
( )

oD
|
o|
+
Divergence in Other Coordinate Systems
A
e
x
sin y ( )
e
x
cos y ( )
2 z
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
div A
( )
o
ox
e
x
sin y ( )
( )
o
oy
e
x
cos y ( )
( )
+
o
oz
2 z ( ) +
div A
( )
e
x
sin y ( ) e
x
sin y ( ) + 2 +
Divergence at origin for given vector flux density A
3-6: Maxwells First Equation
S
.
S A
(
(
]
d Q
S
.
S A
(
(
]
d
Av
Q
Av
Gauss Law
per unit volume
Volume shrinks to zero
0 Av
S
.
S A
(
(
]
d
Av
lim
0 Av
Q
Av
lim

Electric flux per unit volume is equal to the volume charge density
Maxwells First Equation
div D
( )

v
0 Av
S
.
S A
(
(
]
d
Av
lim
0 Av
Q
Av
lim

Sometimes called the point form of Gauss Law

Enclosed surface is reduced to a single point
3-7: V and the Divergence Theorem
V del operator
A
o a
x
( )
ox
o a
y
( )
oy
+
o a
z
( )
oz
+
V
What is del?
Vs Relationship to Divergence
div D
( )
V
V D
True for all coordinate systems
Other V Relationships
Gradient results from V operating on a function
Represents direction of greatest change
Curl cross product of V and
Relates to work in a field

If curl is zero, so is work
Examination of V and flux
Cube defined by 1 < x,y,z < 1.2
D 2 x
2
y a
x
3 x
2
y
2
a
y
+
Q
S
.
S D
(
(
]
d
vol
.
v
v
(
(
]
d u
Calculation of total flux
u
t ot al
u
left
u
right
+ u
front
+ u
back
+
x
1
1 := x
2
1.2 :=
y
1
1 := y
2
1.2 :=
z
1
1 := z
2
1.2 :=
u
x1
z
1
z
2
z
y
1
y
2
y 2 x
1
2
y
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d := u
y1
z
1
z
2
z
x
1
x
2
x 3 x
2
y
1
2

(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d :=
u
x2
z
1
z
2
z
y
1
y
2
y 2 x
2
2
y
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d := u
y2
z
1
z
2
z
x
1
x
2
x 3 x
2
y
2
2

(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d :=
u
t ot al
u
x1
u
x2
+ u
y1
+ u
y2
+ :=
u
t ot al
0.103 =
Evaluation of V at center of cube V D
div D
( )
x
2 x
2
y
( )
d
d y
3 x
2
y
2

( )
d
d
+
div D
( )
4 x y 6 x
2
y +
divD 4 1.1 ( ) 1.1 ( ) 6 1.1 ( )
2
1.1 ( ) + :=
divD 12.826 =
Non-Cartesian Example
Equipotential Surfaces Free Software
Semiconductor Application - Device Charge Field Potential
Vector Fields
Potential Field
Applications of Gausss Law