Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay

Objectives
To be able to:

define the term radioactive decay use the terms parent nuclide and progeny correctly list the types of ionizing radiation & their properties state the quantities & units used in the measurement of radiation describe decay mechanisms in terms of changes to the parent nuclide & the types of radiation emitted use the chart of the nuclides to predict progeny resulting from radioactive decay define the terms half-life & decay constant

Objectives (cont) define the terms activity & becquerel relate the becquerel to curie and convert from one to the other calculate the amount of activity of a nuclide remaining after a specific period calculate the half-life of a nuclide given sample data use the chart of nuclides to describe decay chains and series describe the sources of both natural & artificial radionuclides

Radioactive Decay

Spontaneous changes in the nucleus of an unstable atom Results in formation of new elements (progeny) Accompanied by a release of energy, either particulate or electromagnetic or both

Radioactive Decay

Why some nuclides decay

the structure of the nucleus determines whether or not it will be radioactive if a nucleus does not have a stable arrangement, it will decay and form a more stable nuclide
Nuclear instability is related to whether the neutron to proton ratio is too high or too low

Ionizing Radiation

Any particle or ray which has sufficient energy to remove e s from atoms
eV (electron volt)

Unit of energy:

1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 joules keV (1000 eV), MeV (1,000,000 eV)

Alpha Particle ()
consists of 2 p and 2 n tightly bound together
4 2

He emitted w/ a well-defined energy which is characteristic of the particular radionuclide from w/c it was emitted usually emitted by heavy nuclei elements, e.g. U, Ra

Beta Particle ()
an e w/c is ejected from the nucleus of the radionuclide at high speed the proton remains in the nucleus & the e is emitted has a small mass (1/1840 u) has a single negative charge are emitted w/ a distribution of energies up to a max. energy w/c is dependent on the particular radionuclide

Gamma Rays ()
em radiation w/c come from the nucleus of an atom as a result of radioactive decay

em radiation consists of packets of energy (photons) w/c are transmitted in the form of waves at the speed of light - includes non-ionizing radiation, e.g. radiowaves, microwaves, heat, visible light, & uv

have the highest energy of all em radiation no mass & no charge Energy released are well defined & characteristic of the emitting radionuclide

Energy Spectrum
Short wavelength = high energy

Long wavelength = low energy

IONIZING RADIATION

Potentially harmful or beneficial to humansdepending on how it is used.

Positrons (+)
is similar to an electron w/ the same mass but an opposite (+) charge it comes from a proton w/c has changed into a neutron & positron the neutron stays in the nucleus & the positron is ejected at high speed

X - rays
electromagnetic radiation with no mass & no charge produced when atomic e - s undergo a change in orbit

Neutrons
particles found in the nucleus of the atom

has a mass of 1 u and no charge

Summary of the properties of Ionizing Radiation

Type of radiation Symbol alpha beta gamma positron X-ray + x Mass (u) 4 1/1840 0 1/1840 0 Charge +2 -1 0 +1 0

neutron

Using the chart of the nuclides to find decay modes the way in w/c decay occurs is different for each particular radionuclide & their decay modes differ in both the particles produced & the energy of the emitted particle or ray provides information on the radioactive decay modes and energies use to find both stable & unstable nuclides

Isotopes
equal number of protons and neutrons

There are many isotopes. Most have more neutrons than protons. Some are stable but most are unstable (radioactive).

The Line of Stability

N>Z

- The closer the nuclide to the line of stability, the more stable it is

Modes of Radioactive Decay

Alpha Emission
Emission of a highly energetic helium nucleus from the nucleus of a radioactive atom Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low Results in a decay product whose atomic number is 2 less than the parent and whose atomic mass is 4 less than the parent Alpha particles are monoenergetic

Alpha Particle Decay

Alpha particle charge +2

Alpha Particle Decay

Alpha Decay Example

Ra-226 decays by alpha emission When Ra-226 decays, the atomic mass decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2 The atomic number defines the element, so the element changes from radium to radon
226Ra 88

222Rn
86

+ 4He
2

Nuclear Reactions Alpha Decay

Beta Emission
Emission of an electron from the nucleus of a radioactive atom ( n p+ + e-1 ) Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too high (i.e., a surplus of neutrons) Beta particles are emitted with a whole spectrum of energies (unlike alpha particles)

Beta Spectrum

Beta Particle Decay

Beta particle charge -1

Beta Particle Decay

Nuclear Reactions Beta Decay

Beta Decay of 99Mo

Gamma Ray Emission Monoenergetic radiations emitted from nucleus of an excited atom following radioactive decay

Rid nucleus of excess energy

Have characteristic energies which can be used to identify the radionuclide

Gamma Ray Emission

Gamma radiation

Gamma Ray Emission

Isomeric Transition
process whereby a metastable radionuclide emits a gamma ray thus removing excess energy from the nucleus metastable radionuclide is one which has excess energy in the nucleus, e.g., 99mTc. also called isomer
99 99m

IT
42

Mo
43

Tc +

99

Tc +
43

Positron (Beta+) Emission

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low ( p+ n + e+ ) Emits a positron (beta particle whose charge is positive) Results in emission of 2 gamma rays (more on this later)

Positron (Beta+) Emission

Positron Decay

15 8

15 7

Nuclear Reactions Positron Decay or Electron Capture

Positron Emission

Electron Capture

X-Ray Production
electron fills vacancy Electron ejected

Characteristic x-rays

Internal Conversion

another process w/c removes excess energy from the nucleus; an alternative to gamma ray emission excess energy is being transferred to an orbital e- from the inner shells of the atom These ejected electrons are called Auger electrons and have very little kinetic energy Electron & x-ray are emitted instead of a gamma ray

Internal Conversion

Orbital Electron Capture

Also called K Capture Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low

Form of decay competing with positron emission

One of the orbital electrons is captured by the nucleus: -1 e + +1 p n Results in emission of characteristic x-rays

Orbital Electron Capture

Orbital Electron Capture

Photon Emission

Difference Between X-Rays and Gamma Rays

Summary of Radioactive Decay Mechanisms

Decay
Mode Characteristic of Parent Radionuclide Change in Z

Change in N

Comments

Alpha
Beta Positron Electron Capture Gamma

Heavy nuclei
Excess neutrons Excess protons

-2
+1 -1

-2
-1 +1

Alphas Monoenergetic
Beta Energy Spectrum Positron Energy Spectrum K-Capture; Characteristic X-rays Emitted Gammas Monoenergetic Ejects Orbital Electrons; characteristic x-rays and Auger electrons emitted

Excess protons

-1

+1

Excess energy

Internal Conversion

Excess energy

Types of radiation

Ionizing radiation (IR) Particles Alpha Beta Neutron Electromagnetic Gamma & X-ray Non-ionizing radiation (NIR) Electromagnetic Visible light Microwave Radiofrequency Extremely low frequency
Lasers in a classical concert

Decay Parameters
Physical quantities w/c describe the way in w/c radionuclide decays:

decay constant activity half-life

Radioactive Decay Law & Decay Constant

N = N0 e -T
where:

N0 - the number of radioactive nuclei present at T = 0,

the radioactive decay constant

T - the elapsed time N - the number of radioactive nuclei remaining after the elapsed time

Activity

Indicates the number of radionuclides disintegrating per second (dps or s-1)

A = N

or

A = A0e-T

The SI unit is the becquerel (Bq) 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second

Radioactive decay constant ()

= 0.693/T1/2
where T1/2 is half-life

Half-life (T1/2)

The time it will take for the activity of the radioactive source to decrease to one-half of its original value The activity of a source is dependent on the half-life of the particular radionuclide Each radionuclide has each characteristic half-life T= T1/2 N = N0 / 2 A = A0 / 2

Half-Life and Decay Constant The relationship between half-life and decay constant is:

T =

0.693

Half-life
Radionuclide Cesium-137 Americium-241 Cobalt-60 Half-life 30.17 y 433 y 5.25 y Application Industrial gauging, medical therapy Industrial gauging Industrial gauging, radiography, medical therapy Medical diagnosis/therapy

Iodine-131

8.1 d

Iodine-125

60 d

Medical diagnosis/therapy

Half-Life

Activity

Indicates the number of radionuclides disintegrating per second (dps or s-1) The SI unit is the becquerel (Bq) 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second

Multiples & Prefixes of Bq

Multiple 1 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000,000,000 1 x 1015 Prefix ------Mega (M) Giga (G) Tera (T) Peta (P) Abbreviation Bq MBq GBq TBq PBq

Relationship of Units of Activity

Becquerel (Bq) = 1 dps Curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 dps

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq 1 mCi = 3.7 x 10 7 Bq 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 4 Bq

Useful Conversions for Units of Activity

Curies to Becquerels
1 Ci = 37 kBq 1 mCi = 37 MBq 1 Ci = 37 GBq 10 2 = 37 TBq

Becquerels to Curies
1 Bq = 2.7 x 10 -11 Ci 1 kBq = 2.7 x 10 -3 Ci 1 MBq = 2.7 x 10 -5 Ci = 27 Ci 1 GBq = 2.7 x 10 -2 Ci = 27mCi 1 TBq = 2.7 x 10 Ci = 27 Ci

Examples
1. Cesium -137 source has an activity of 20 mCi. This is equivalent to: a) Bq, b) MBq, c) GBq 2. A radioactive source has an activity of 800 MBq. Convert this to: a) mCi, c) Ci

Radioactive Decay
Activity (A)

A = A 0 e - T
disintegration time

time (t)

Radioactive Decay
The amount of activity A remaining after n half-lives is given by A Ao = 1 2n

Calculating Activity
A=
where:
A is the activity at time, T A0 is the initial activity

A0
2n

n is the number of half-lives w/c has elapsed

n = T/T1/2

Examples
1.

Co-60 has an activity of 5.55 GBq as of Feb. 19, 2000. What was its activity last May 19, 2008? (T1/2= 5.27 yrs.) Cs- 137 source used in mining industry has an activity of 740 MBq as of March 30, 1990. What will be its activity on Dec. 30, 2008? ( T1/2 = 30 yrs.)

2.

Sources of ionizing radiation: Natural and Artificial or man-made

Sources of IR

Natural sources
Cosmic radiation Terrestrial radiation

Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM)

Artificial or man-made sources

Electrically generated radiation Accelerator produced radioisotopes Reactor produced radioisotopes

Natural sources
Background Radiation

Galactic radiation is a component of the background radiation on earth.

Natural sources
Background Radiation
Cosmic radiation contributes to the background radiation on earth. The earths atmosphere provides shielding from most of the cosmic radiation.

cosmic radiation comes from outside the earth

Cosmogenic formed as a result of cosmic ray interactions

terrestrial radiation comes from the rocks of the earth

U-238 Th-232

Rn-222 Rn-220

Terrestrial Nuclides
Nuclide
226Ra

Half-life
1,600 yr

Natural Activity
16 Bq/kg in limestone and 48 Bq/kg in igneous rock

222Rn

40K

Noble gas; average annual air concentrations in US range from 0.6 to 28 Bq/m3 1.28 x 109 yr 0.037 to 1.1 Bq/g in soil

3.82 days

Background Radiation

There are three decay chains that occur in nature:

the uranium series, beginning with U-238 the thorium series, beginning with Th-232 the actinium series, beginning with U-235

Once upon a time there was also a neptunium series, which originated with 241Pu, that has a half-life of only 14 years. The only remaining member of this series is 209Bi with a half-life of 2 x 1018 years.

Primordial existing since the creation of the earth

(have half-lives in the order of a billion (10 9) years

Nuclide
235U

Half-life
7.04 x 108 yr 4.47 x 109 yr

Natural Activity
0.711% of all natural uranium 99.275% of all natural U; 0.5 to 4.7 ppm total U in common rocks

238U

232Th

1.41 x 1010 yr 1.6 to 20 ppm in common rocks

Th-232

Th-228
6.1 h

1.4 x 1010 y

Ac-228

1.9 y

Thorium-232 Decay Series

Ra-224
3.7 d

5.8 y

Ra-228

Rn-220
56 s

Po-212
61 m

Po-216 0.15 s

Bi-212
11 h

300 ns

Pb-212

61 m

Pb-208
3.1 m

(stable)

Tl-208

238U
Nuclide
U-238 Th-234 Pa-234

series
Energy (MeV)
beta
0.193, 0.103 2.31

Half-life
4.51 x 10 9 y 24.10 days 1.175 min

alpha
4.18

Gamma (Photons/trans)
0.092(0.04), 0.063(0.03) 1.0 (0.015), 0.076(0.0063), I.T. 0.068 (0.0059)

U-234
Th-230 Ra-226 Rn-222 Po-218

2.48 x 105 y
8.0x 104 y 1,622 y 3.825 d 3.05 m

4.763
4.685 4.777 5.486 5.998 0.0186(0.030

Pb-214
Bi-214 Po-214 Tl-210 Pb-210

26.8 m
19.7 m 1.64 x 10-4 s 1.32 m 19.4 y 5.505 7.680

0.65
1.65, 3.37

0.352(0.036), 0.295(0.020), 0.242(0.07)

0.609(0.295), 1.12(0.1310)

1.96 0.017

2.36(1), 0.783 (1), 0.297(1) 0.0467(0.045) 0.802(0.000012

Bi-210
Po-210 Pb-206

5.00 d
138.40 d Stable 5.298

1.17

Internal radioactivity
Radioactivity in diet
lead-210 polonium-210 potassium-40

Radionuclides Found in Your Body

Nuclide*
Uranium Thorium
40K

Total Mass of Nuclide Found in the Body 90 g 30 g 17 mg

Total Activity of Nuclide Found in the Body 30 pCi (1.1 Bq) 3 pCi (0.11 Bq) 120 nCi (4.4 kBq)

Daily Intake of Nuclides 1.9 g 3 g 0.39 mg

Radium
14C

31 pg
95 g

30 pCi (1.1 Bq)

0.4 Ci (15 kBq)

2.3 pg
1.8 g

*Uranium, Thorium and Radium are elements

Artificial (man-made) sources of IR

Medical Industrial (nuclear and non-nuclear industry)

Accidental releases from nuclear industries

Consumer products

Relative Radioactive Source Activity

Example
environmental samples laboratory standard in-vitro tracer nuclear medicine industrial source teletherapy source irradiator

Special Units
picocurie nanocurie microcurie millicurie curie kilocurie megacurie 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 100 103 106

SI Units (37x)
millibequerel becquerel kilobequerel megabequerel gigabequerel terabequerel petabequerel 10-3 100 103 106 109 1012 1015

Global average individual background ionizing radiation doses (mSv/y)

TOTAL FROM NATURAL 2.38
Radon 1.3 Terrestrial 0.46 Internal K-40, C-14 0.23 Cosmic 0.39

TOTAL FROM ARTIFICIAL 0.31

Medical 0.3 Fallout 0.007 Occupational 0.002 Discharges 0.001 Products 0.0005
Source: UNSCEAR

TOTAL = 2.69

References
1.

2.

Module 2.3, IAEA/ANSTO Distance Learning Project IAEA Lecture Materials for the Post Graduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection and Safe Use of Radiation Sources

Thank you