TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. 2.

Theory world of ideas, theories, models Empirical research world of observation and experience

PRESENTED BY: LIWAYWAY S. VILORIA

Goals of Social Sciences Explore, explain phenomena prediction Theoretical / Conceptual World Empirical World

Strategies linking Theoretical & Empirical Worlds

Theory before Research Quantitative Paradigm Method Triargulation ( mixed / multiple theories, methods, data, researches ) Research before Theory Qualitative Paradigm Method

Between Paradigm / Across method

Within Paradigm / Method

RESEARCH STRATEGIES TO LINK CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL WORLDS

Theory-then-research 2. Research-then-theory 3. Spiraling Strategy Theory and research must interact constantly Contrast between these strategies are more apparent than real
1.

Theory-Then-Research Strategy Idea Theory Design Data Collection Analysis Findings/Generalizations Research-Before-Theory Strategy Idea Design Data Collection Theory Analysis Major Findings Spiraling Strategy Idea Theory Design Data Collection and Organization Analysis and Interpretation Conclusion Literature Review ( Note: see Berge, 1995:16)

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Theories Direct Observations / Experiences - Issues, difficulties, current practices Critical Review of Professional Literature - Familiarizes with the current state of knowledge (related to the research topic) - Contribute to cumulative nature of scientific knowledge

FOCUS OF CRITICAL REVIEW & PROFESSIONAL / RELATED LITERATURE

Concepts Theories Conceptual and Operational Definitions Problems and hypotheses studied by others Research methods used Findings Recommendations

Problem Generalization Hypothesis

Data Analysis

Theory

Research Design

Data Collection

Measurement

Main Stages of the Research Process

The Purpose Statement & All Caps

Establishes the Direction for the research
- Captures in a single sentence or paragraph, the essence of the study

Must be written as clearly and concisely as possible

-

- Needs to be firmly grounded in the paradigm assumption ( basic indicator of a good purpose statement ) e.g. a good qualitative purpose statement expresses / implies the assumptions of qualitative paradigm i.e., language of qualitative research and methodology of an emerging design based on experiences of individuals in the natural setting.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM

- represents specific statements of the purpose

Pose

of the study Typically uses research questions, not objectives or hypotheses Ask one or two grand tour questions followed by not more than five to seven subquestions to narrow the focus of the study but that do not constrain the qualitative researcher. - Write not more than 12 questions in all (Miles&Huberman, 1984) - These questions become topics explored in interviews, observations, documents and archival material The question format might be related to specific qualitative design types. Begin the research questions with the words what or how. Tell the reader that the study will do one of the following, which convey the language of an emerging design. - discover (e.g. grounded theory ) - explain or seek to understand (e.g ethnography) - explore the process (e.g case study ) - describe the experience (e.g. phenomenology)

questions that use nondirectional wording - These questions describe, rather than relate variables or compare groups. - Delete words that suggest or refer a quantitative study, words with a directional orientation. - e.g affect, influence, impact, determine, case and effect. Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study Use open-ended questions without experience to the literature or theory unless otherwise dictated by a qualitative design type. Use a single focus and specify the research site in the research questions.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM - represents specific restatements of the purpose of the study

In

survey designs, these restatements of the purpose of the study take the form of research of questions or objectives In experiments, they are hypotheses: - may be a comparison between two or more groups in terms of a dependence variable. - may be a comparison between two or more independent and dependent variables. - may be descriptive questions to describe responses to the independent and dependent variables.

Guidelines in the Development of Quantitative Questions , Objectives and Hypotheses

3. When writing this passage, select one form. - write questions, objectives or hypotheses but not a combination. Hypothesis declarative statement of the relations between two or more variables ( Kerlinger, 1979; Mason and Bamble, 1989) Research Questions- also poses a relationship, but phrases the relationship as a question(Krathwohl, 1988) Objective is the same relationship statement in declarative form. Mixing hypotheses with questions or objectives conveys an informal (and redundant) style of writing.

1. Develop the hypotheses, questions, or objectives from theory - in the deductive methodological process of quantitative research, they are test table propositions deduced from theory ( Kerlinger, 1979 ).

2. Keep the
independent and dependent variables separate and measure them separately - this procedure reinforces the causeand-effect logic quantitative research.

4 If hypotheses are used, consider the alternative forms for writing them and make a choice based on the audience for the research Use the formal, traditional language to write hence for the research Use the formal, traditional language to write hypotheses. Null hypotheses states that there is no significant relationship between or among the variables

a)

b)

c)

d)

literary null (concept oriented, no direction) literary alternative (concept oriented, directional) operational null (operational, no direction) operational alternative (operational, directional)

- or there is no
significant differences between or among groups (Armstrong, 1974) Alternative hypotheses state a direction for the relationship or the differences. This is used if the literature suggests a hypothesized direction for the variables (Krathword, 1988). Consider writing hypotheses in one of four forms:

Literacy form means that the variables will be stated in abstract, concept-oriented language Operational form the variables will be stated in more specific language.

5. Use major variables other than demographics as independent variables, unless the study merits a close examination of demographic variables. - Quantitative studies verify a theorydemographic variables typically enter these models as intervening or mediating variables. 6. Use the same pattern of word order in the questions, objectives, or hypothesis to establish a formal rhetorical style.

- Example of word order with independent variables stated first. 1. There is no relationship between use of ancillary support services and academic persistence of nontraditional-aged college women. 2. There is no relationship between family support systems and academic persistence of nontraditional aged college women. 3. There is no relationship between ancillary support services and family support systems

7. Use this model for writing questions or hypotheses: Write descriptive questions (or hypotheses) followed by multivariate (or inferential) questions or hypotheses.
1.

write description question(s) for each independent and dependent variable (and important mediating variables, if necessary) in the study. Descriptive questions are then followed by multivariate questions that relate variables and compare groups. Multivariable questions are followed by questions that add any mediating or controlled variables.

2.

3.

- Repeat Key phrases and order the variables by beginning with the independent and concluding with the dependent variables.

X1

+ + Y1 +

X2
X3
Independent Variable

+
Y2 Mediating Variable

Z1

Dependent Variable

Three Independent Variables Influence a Single for the Effects of Two Mediating Variables

X1

Y1 +

Z1
_ X2 _
Independent Variable

Y2
Mediating Variable Dependent Variable

Two Groups, X1 and X2, Are Compared in Terms of Z1, Controlling for the Effects of Y1 and Y2

Researcher Tests a Theory

Researcher Tests Hypotheses or Research Questions Derived from the Theory

Researcher Operationalizes Concepts or Variables Derived from the Theory

Researcher Uses an Instrument to Measure Variables in the Theory

The Deductive mode of Research in a Quantitative Study

RESEARCH PARADIGMS
Paradigm the theory dominant in any historical period helps understand phenomena advances assumption about the social world, how science should be conducted, and what constitute legitimate problems, solution, and criteria of proof. differ by discipline fields, and are often contested.

 FOCUSING THE STUDY

Focus for the study the central concept being examined in a scholarly study may emerge from: extensive literature receive suggestions from colleagues, advisors, researchers practical experiences
In a single sentence describe the focus concisely Focus the topic by describing it succinctly, drafting a working title, and considering whether it is researchable. working title helps focus the direction of research working title may be modified as one proceeds with a project. be brief and avoid wasting words. eliminate unnecessary words such as An approach to and A Study of. use a single title or a double title ( Wilkinson, 1991) title must not be longer than 12 words eliminate mot articles and prepositions make sure it includes the focus or topic of the study

Criteria for Determining the Researchability of the topic

TRIANGULATION METHOD
Triangulation
use multiple methods of data collection and analysis these methods might be drawn from within methods approaches (i.e. different types of quantitative data collection strategies e.g. survey and experiment) between methods qualitative and quantitative data collection procedures (e.g. in-depth interviews and a survey) (Jick, 1979; Grant and Fine, 1992) Observations may be supplemented with structured, quantitative observations mixing of ethnography and experimental research survey research and qualitative procedures

MODELS OF TRIANGULATION/COMBINED DESGINS

Two phase design Dominant use dominant design Mixed methodology design

Concepts
Concept an abstraction- a symbol- a representation of an object or one of its properties, or of a behavioral phenomenon. Functions of Concepts 1. Provide a common language, which enables scientist to communicate with one another 2. Concepts give scientists a perspective- a way of looking at phenomena 3. Concepts allow scientists to classify their experience and to generalize from them 4. Concepts are components of theoriesthey define a theorys content and attributes

Two-phase design consist of a qualitative phase and a separate quantitative phase of the study. This clearly separates the two paradigms. Dominant-less dominant design places the study within a single, dominant paradigm with one small component of the overall study drawn from the alternative paradigm. E.g. * experimental study with small qualitative interview component in the data collection * qualitative observation followed by a quantitative survey of a sample from a population Mixed Methodology Design involves mixing aspects of the qualitative and quantitative paradigm at all or many methodological steps in the design.

Conceptual Definitions Definitions that describe concepts by using other concepts; or by using primitive terms (concrete and cannot by defined by other concepts) and derived terms constructed by using primitive terms

Operational Definition describes a set of procedures to establish the existence of the phenomenon described by the concept.

Use of a Theory in Quantitative Paradigm of Research Bases for Classification of Theories

Theory provides explanation to the hypotheses, questions or objectives (basically in a quantitative study) Given its importance in the conceptualization of research, it is introduced in the design process. Definition of theory in Quantitative paradigm a set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena (Krlinger, 1979) interrelated set of constructs (or variables) are formed into propositions or hypothesis that specify the relationships among variables relationships among variables-specified in terms of magnitude or direction systemic view-might be an argument, a discussion, or a rationale that helps explain (or predict phenomena) that occur in the world. Theoretical rationale an idea add to systemic view of phenomena by Lebovits and Hagedorn (1977:17)means specifying how and why the variables and relational statements are interrelated Terms that may be used to refer to the passage/section in a quantitative study that discusses its theorical foundation: Theory base Theoretical rationale Theoretical perspective

1. Breadth or scope a) Grand theories ( explain large categories of phenomena, common in the natural sciences-e.g. Darwing Theory of evolution) b) Middle-range theories (fall between working hypotheses of everyday life and grand theories-e.g. life span development Theories, deviance theories) c) Substantive theories restricted to a particular setting, group, time, population, or problem. 2. Form of presentation shows a causal ordering of variables a) A series ofifthen statements that explain why independent variables influence or cause the dependent variables (e.g. Homans theory of interaction, 1950: 112, 118, 120) b) a series of hypotheses [e.g. Hopkins (1964) theory of the influence processes involves 5 variables and 15 propositions] 3. Levels of Abstraction (Parsons and Shils) a) Ad hoe classificatory systems b) Categorical system ( Parsons analysis of Social Action) c) Conceptual frameworks d) Theoretical Systems e) function- deals with static or dynamic phenomena f) Structure logical systems of thought w/ closely level interrelationships, or - closely defined set of propositions

Parsms, Social Action Theory

These behavior attributes constitute a social system

Forms of Social Systems

Behavior attributes goal oriented, occurs in group situations,

mormatively regulated, involves expenditure, energy

Personally System

Cultural System

Social System

Conceptual Framework Third level of Theory

Systematic placement/arrangement of descriptive categories in a broad structure of explicit propositions, statements of relationships between two or more empirical properties, to be accepted or rejected

Conceptual model an abstract representation of reality that orders and simplifies our views of reality by representing its essential characteristics
delineates those aspects of the real world considered to be relevant to the problem investigated make a explicit the significant relationships among those aspects enables the researcher to formulate empirically testable propositions regarding the nature of three relationships After testing, and achieving a better understanding of some parts of the real world, the scientist may decide to change the model to conform with his or her new insights. also used to gain insight into the phenomena that the scientist cannot observe directly. tools for explanation and predictions often changed to represent reality more accurately and to incorporate new knowledge. critical attribute of a scientific model is that it can be tested empirically; that is, it can be proved false and changed or discarded.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Sets the stage for the entire study Provides background information for the research Establishes a framework for the research

PARTS OF INTRODUCTION to the STUDY

Key Components
Establishing the problem leading to the study (1st and/ or 2nd paragraph) Casting the problem within a larger scholarly literature Discussing deficiencies in the literature about the problem Targeting an audience and noting the significance of the problem for this audience

1ST and/2nd Paragraphs Creates readers interests and Establish the problem or issue that leads to the study Problem issue that emerges from the literature, theory or practice that creates/leads to a need for the study. - rationale for the study 3rd Paragraph - Discusses the literature that has addressed the problem Review entire volumes of research, not single or isolated studies Casts the problem within the ongoing dialogue in the literature (place the in-text references at the end of the paragraph or at the end of the Summary about several studies)

3rd paragraph Literature About the Problem

review entire volumes of research, not single, isolated studies about the problem
cast the problem within the larger literature / ongoing dialogue in the literature

4th Paragraph Discuss deficiencies in the past literature

Write about areas overlooked by past studies, including topics, special statistical

treatments, and significant implications.

Discuss how the present study addresses these deficiencies and provides a unique contribution to the literature

5th Paragraph Target the Audience

End the introduction by discussing the significance of the problem for a specific audience.

- may consist of a short phrase or a longer passage - may address diverse audience: (practitioners, other researchers, or policymakers)

Write an opening sentence that stimulate and conveys to which a broad readership can relate Specify the problem (dilemma, issue leading to the study) What issue serves as a strong need / justification to conduct the study? Indicate why the problem is important Focus the problem on the Key concept being tested quantitatively or explored qualitatively. In quantitative study this concept is the dependent variable

In qualitative study this is the main phenomenon of interest As a general rule, refrain from using quotes in the lead sentence. This rule may be relaxed in the qualitative studies written form a literary style. Refrain from using idiomatic expressions or trite phrases (e.g sacred cow) Consider numeric information for impact Consider short sentences for impact