Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Learning outcomes
The participants in markets and what motivates them. The main factors that influence how much of a product consumers wish to buy. The main influences on how much producers wish to sell. How consumers and producers interact to determine the market price. While demand and supply forces are present in all markets, many different institutional structures also affect market outcomes.
An individual consumers demand curve shows the relation between the price of a product and the quantity of that product the customer wishes to purchase per period of time. It is drawn on the assumption that all other prices, income, and tastes remain constant.
Its negative slope indicates that the lower the price of the product, the more the consumer wishes to purchase.
The market demand curve is the horizontal sum of all the individual consumers.
In formulating our demand theory, the agents are all assumed to be adult individuals who earn income, and they spend this income purchasing various goods and services. The consumer is assumed to maximize utility within the limits set by his or her available resources.
Demand
The amount of a product that consumers wish to purchase is called the quantity demanded. Note there are two important things about this concept.
First, quantity demanded is a desired quantity ie how much consumers wish to purchase given the resources at their command. Secondly, quantity demanded is a flow.
Qd =f(Pn, Pr, Y, T, U) Price of the commodity. Price of related commodities i.e. substitutes or complementary goods. Level of Income and Wealth Tastes and preferences of consumers Size and composition of population Distribution of income Wealth conditions Other factors
Demand Function
DEMAND
Alices Demand Schedule
Reference Letter Price [ per dozen]
Quantity demanded [dozen per month] 3.00
f e
a b c d e f
2.50
d
2.00
c
1.50
b
1.00 0.50
1.00
3.00 2 4 6 8 2.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Quantity of Eggs [dozen per month]
[i]. William
1.00
[ii]. Sarah
Reference Letter U V W X Y Z
Quantity demanded [000 dozen per month] 110.0 90.0 77.5 67.5 62.5 60.0
The table shows the quantity of eggs that would be demanded by all consumers at selected prices, ceteris paribus. For example, row W indicates that if the price of eggs were 1.50 per dozen, consumers would want to purchase 77,500 dozen per month. The data in this table are plotted in the following figure.
3.00
2.50
2.00
X W
1.50
V
1.00
0.50
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
The negative slope of the curve indicates that quantity demanded increases as price falls. The six points correspond to the six price quantity combinations shown in the table. The curve drawn through all of the points and labelled D is the demand curve.
D0 Z Y
2.00
1.50 1.00
W
V U
0.50
20
40
140
2.00
1.50 1.00
W
V
W V U
0.50
20
40
140
Price
Quantity
Price
Quantity
Price
Quantity
Price
Quantity
A rise in the price of a products substitute shifts the demand curve for the product to the right. More will be purchased at each price.
A fall in the price of one product that is complementary to a second product will shift the second products demand curve to the right. More will be purchased at each price.
Note
Demand refers to one whole demand curve. Change in demand refers to a shift in the whole curve, that is, a change in the amount that will be bought at every price.
An increase in demand means that the whole demand curve has shifted to the right; a decrease in demand means that the whole demand curve has shifted to the left.
Any one point on a demand curve represents a specific amount being bought at a specified price. It represents, therefore, a particular quantity demanded.
Note
A movement down a demand curve is called an increase (or a rise) in the quantity demanded; a movement up the demand curve is called a decrease (or a fall) in the quantity demanded.
Note
We are interested in developing a theory of how products get priced. To do this, we hold all other influences constant and ask the following question:
How will the quantity of a product demanded vary as its own price varies?
A basic economic hypothesis is that the lower the price of a product, the larger the quantity that will be demanded, other things being equal.
Note
Giffen goods : Giffen goods are special type of inferior goods. According to Sir Giffen, when the price of cheap foodstuff like bread increased, people bought more and consumed more and not less of it. Eg: A rise in the price of bread caused a decline in the purchasing power of the poor such that they were forced to cut down the consumption of other items like meat, vegetables etc as bread even though its price had increased was cheaper than other items. Conspicuous Necessities : Commodities like TV, fridge as through their constant use they have become necessities of life. Conspicuous consumption : Goods like diamond etc. where with an increase in price of the good, Quantity demanded increases. Future changes in price : Households act as speculators. Eg: Realty prices etc. Emergencies : Like war, flood negate the operation of law of demand. Change in fashion Ignorance
We now look at the supply side of markets. The suppliers are firms, which are in business to make the goods and services that consumers want to buy.
Supply
Firms motives
The amount of a product that firms are able and willing to offer for sale is called the quantity supplied. Supply is a desired flow: how much firms are willing to sell per period of time, not how much they actually sell.
For a simple theory of price, we need to know how quantity supplied varies with a products own price, all other things being held constant. The quantity of any product that firms will produce and offer for sale is positively related to the products own price, rising when the price rises and falling when the price falls.
u v w x y z
0.50 1.00
1.50
2.00 2.50 3.00
2.50 X
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Price of Eggs [ per dozen] [1] u v w x [2] 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Original quantity supplied [000 dozen per month] [3] 5.0 46.0 77.5 100.0
New quantity supplied [000 dozen per month] [4] 28.0 76.0 102.0 120.0 [5] U V W X
y
z
2.50
3.00
115.0
122.5
132.0
140.0
Y
Z
2.00
1.50
V 1.00 U 0.50
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
2.00
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
S0
Quantity
S0
S1
Quantity
S2
S0
Quantity
S2
S0
S1
Quantity
A shift in the supply curve from S0 to S2 indicates less is supplied at each price. Such a decrease in supply can be caused by: A rise in the price of inputs that are important in
producing the commodity. Changes in technology that increase producing the commodity (rare). the costs of
So far we have considered demand and supply separately. We now outline how demand and supply interact to determine price.
A market may be defined as an area over which buyers and sellers negotiate the exchange of some product or related group of products. It must be possible, therefore, for buyers and sellers to communicate with each other and to make meaningful transactions over the whole market.
Quantity demanded [000 dozen per month] 110.0 90.0 77.5 67.5 62.5 60.0
Excess Demand [quantity demanded minus quantity supplied] [000 dozen per month] 105.0 44.0 0.0 -32.5 -52.5 -62.5
2.50
W V U
20
40
60
80
100
120
E1 p1 p0 p1 E0 p0
E0 E1
q0
q1
Quantity
q0
q1
Quantity
Fall in demand brings down the equilibrium price and quantity sold and purchased also declines.
The law of demand: demand curves have negative slopes throughout their entire ranges The theory of supply: supply curves have positive slopes throughout their entire ranges The law of price adjustment: prices rise when demand exceeds supply, and fall if supply exceeds demand.
There is no more than one price at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied; equilibrium is unique. Only at the equilibrium price will the market price remain constant. When the demand or supply curve shifts, the equilibrium price and quantity will change. The market is stable in the sense that forces exist to move the price towards its market clearing level.
Implications