12ME2304 -MATERIALS ENGINEERING

UnitI Crystal Structures And Mechanical Properties

Crystal structures - Unit cells, Basic Metallic crystal structures BCC-FCC-HCP, Polymorphism and Allotropy , An overview of mechanical properties of materials, Stress Strain behavior of metals Elastic deformation. Hookes law, Elastic properties. Plastic deformation. Creep: Creep curve- Stress and temperature effects on creep. Destructive test: Tensile test- Izod and Charpy tests. Nondestructive tests: liquid penetrant test Magnetic particle test- Radiography test Ultrasonic test

Crystal Structure

A crystal is formed when metals solidify from a molten state and the atoms arrange themselves in ordered, repeating, three dimensional pattern .This arrangement of atoms in the crystal is called crystal structure. (OR) Many of the properties of materials (especially mechanical) are determined by the arrangement of the atoms. This arrangement is called the materials crystal structure.

An important distinction

Atomic structure relates to the number of protons

and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom, as well as the number and probability distributions of the electrons. Crystal structure pertains to the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline solid material. Atoms can be arranged either in a regular, periodic array (i.e., long-range order) or completely disordered (amorphous). We need a way to specify crystallographic directions and planes.

Cont..,
To illustrate the concept of z crystal structure and lattice systems, we first identify a coordinate system (x, y, z)

We cant specify directions or planes without knowing what the reference system is.

What is the Unit Cell?

The unit cell is the smallest group of atoms which can generate the entire crystal by translation.

Definition The length of each unit cell axis is called a lattice

parameter. In cubic systems, all three orthogonal lattice parameters are equal Lattice parameters are typically on the order of a few Angstroms (or a few tenths of a nanometer)

METALLIC CRYSTALS
Tend to be thickly packed. Have several reasons for dense packing: -Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic radi are the same. -Metallic bonding is not directional. -Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in order to lower bond energy.

SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)

Rare due to poor packing (only Po has this structure) Close-packed directions are cube edges.
In terms of the hard sphere model we say the atoms are touching in the close-packed directions!

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR

BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

Close packed directions are cube diagonals. In body centered cubic structure each corner atom is surrounded by eight other body centered atoms and hence coordination number is 8 --Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded differently only for ease of viewing.

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC

APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68

FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)

Close packed directions are face diagonals. In this structure there are 8 atoms at the eight corners, there are 6 atoms at the centers of 6 faces and no atoms is present inside. --Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded differently only for ease of viewing

HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE (HCP) In this structure the corner atoms are shared by 6 cells (3from bottom and 3from top).Face atoms are shared by adjacent 2 cells and the atoms in the inside are shared by one cell.

Polymorphism and allotropy

Polymorphism may be defined as the ability of a materials to exist in two or more crystal structures. Polymorphism is observed in pure elements and chemical compounds, both organic and inorganic. The Polymorphism in metals is generally referred to as Allotropy.

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties are those characteristics of material that describe its behavior under the action of external forces. Elasticity Plasticity Ductility Malleability Brittleness Hardness Toughness Stiffness Creep

 Elasticity

It is the property of a material by virtue of which it is able to retain its original shape and size after the removal of the load. Plasticity
It is the property of a material by virtue of which a permanent deformation takes place, whenever it is subjected to the action of external forces. Ductility It is the property of a material by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires before rupture takes place. Malleability It is the property of a material by virtue of which it can withstand deformation under compression without rupture

 Brittleness It is the property of a materials by virtue of which it will fracture without any appreciable deformation. Hardness It is the property of a material by virtue of which it is able to resist abrasion, indentation machining, and scratching. Toughness Which it can absorb maximum energy before fracture takes place. Stiffness It is the property of a material by virtue of which it resists deformation

Elastic Deformation
Initial Small Load Unloaded

bonds stretch return to initial

Cont.., Elastic deformation is the deformation of a body which completely disappears as soon as the external load is removed from the body. The deformation which is fully recoverable and virtually time independent is called elastic deformation.

Hooke's Law
One of the properties of elasticity is that it takes about twice as much force to stretch a spring twice as far. That linear dependence of displacement upon stretching force is called Hooke's law.

Elastic deformation
Gives Hooke's law for Tensile Stress

= E
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
(same units as , N/m2 or Pa)

Unload Stress Slope = modulus of elasticity E Load Strain

23

Higher E higher stiffness

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

Small load Initial Unload

Cont.., Plastic deformation is the deformation of a body which remains even after removing the external load from the body. The plastic deformation in crystalline materials occurs at temperature lower than 0.4 Tm. The plastic deformation may occur under the tensile, compressive or torsional stresses

Plastic Deformation (permanent)

From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors and then reforming bonds with new neighbors. After removal of the stress, the large number of atoms that have relocated, do not return to original position. Yield strength is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation.

ultimate tensile strength

Stress-Strain Diagram
3 Strain Hardening 2 Plastic Region necking

UTS

yield strength

Fracture 5

E
E

Elastic Region 1 4

Elastic region slope =Youngs (elastic) modulus yield strength Plastic region ultimate tensile strength strain hardening fracture

y 2 1

Strain (

) (DL/Lo)

Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

Elastic Region (Point 1 2)
- The material will return to its original shape after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).

- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in this region. or E E

: Stress(psi) E : Elastic modulus (Youngs Modulus) (psi) : Strain (in/in)

-Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will no longer return to its original length.)

Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

Strain Hardening

- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the

curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same Elastic

Modulus (slope). - The material now has a higher yield strength of Point 4. - Raising the yield strength by permanently straining

the material is called Strain Hardening.

Cont.,
Tensile Strength (Point 3) - The largest value of stress on the diagram is called Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) - It is the maximum stress which the material can support without breaking. Fracture (Point 5) - If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation occur. - Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.

CREEP
The creep is defined as the property of a material by virtue of which it deforms continuously under a steady load
(or)

Creep can be defined as the permanent deformation of a material under a steady load as a function of time, usually at higher temperature The property of creep is important in: The soft metals used at about room temperature such as lead coverings on telephone cables and white metal bearings. The metals used at high temperature such as furnace parts, turbine blades, pressure vessel parts, rocket and missiles, supersonic jets, etc.

Creep Curve

 When the load is first applied, there is an instantaneous elastic elongation. In the first stage, primary creep, the test specimen elongates gradually with decreasing creep rate. In the second stage, secondary (steady state) creep, the creep rate becomes essentially constant for a period of time. The slope of the curve in the secondary stage is the minimum creep rate. Finally, if the test time is long enough, the third stage of tertiary creep occurs in which the creep rate increases, eventually leading to the fracture of the test specimen.

Andrades analysis of the competing processes Which determine the creep curve

Tertiary creep :
c
Creep damage starts

tertiary creep
time

Effect of stress on creep curves at constant temperature

Creep: stress and temperature effects

With increasing stress or temperature: The instantaneous strain increases The steady-state creep rate increases The time to rupture decreases

Stress/temperature dependence of the steady-state creep rate can be described by

Mechanisms of Creep
Different mechanisms act in different materials and under different loading and temperature conditions: Dislocation climb Vacancy diffusion Grain boundary sliding Dislocation climb: Atomic movements permit the dislocation to climb. Because of this dislocation climb, the diffusion rate of vacancies may produce a motion in response to the applied stress. Vacancy diffusion: In this mechanism, the diffusion of vacancies controls the creep rate but does not involve the climb of edge dislocation. Vacancies move in response to the applied stress in the directions, this movement finally will result in creep fracture Grain boundary sliding: At lower temperatures ,the creep fracture takes place due to sliding of grain boundaries.

Destructive tests
Destructive tests are mechanical tests. In these tests the welded component or structure is loaded till destruction and thus that cannot be used after such a test. Destructive tests are the usual tests employed for testing strength and toughness of material and may include tensile tests, bend tests , impact tests ,etc. Such tests are expensive to carry out since they involve the preparation of material, the actual making of weld, the cutting and machining of weld test specimens, and finally testing them to destruction.

Tensile Tests Tensile tests are carried out to determine the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and yield point under static loading of base metal, weld metal and the welded joint. Percentage elongation (ductility of joint), over and undermatching, reduction of area as well as proof stress' for hard steels and some non-ferrous metals can also be determined. For determining the tensile strength of a base metal the usual procedure of finding the tensile strength is used and to determine the tensile strength of weld metal alone or welded joint the samples are prepared

Tensile Testing - Procedure

Tensile tests are used to determine the tensile properties of a material, including the tensile strength. The tensile strength of a material is the maximum tensile stress that can be developed in the material. In order to conduct a tensile test, the proper specimen must be obtained. This specimen should conform to ASTM standards for size and features. Prior to the test, the cross-sectional area may be calculated and a predetermined gage length marked. The specimen is then loaded into a machine set up for tensile loads and placed in the proper grippers. Once loaded, the machine can then be used to apply a steady, continuous tensile load. Data is collected at pre-determined points or increments during the test. Depending on the material and specimen being tested, data points may be more or less frequent. Data include the applied load and change in gage length. The load is generally read from the machine panel in pounds or kilograms.

Cont..,
The change in gage length is determined using an extensometer. An extensometer is firmly fixed to the machine or specimen and relates the amount of deformation or deflection over the gage length during a test. While paying close attention to the readings, data points are collected until the material starts to yield significantly. This can be seen when deformation continues without having to increase the applied load. Once this begins, the extensometer is removed and loading continued until failure. Ultimate tensile strength and rupture strength can be calculated from this latter loading. Once data have been collected, the tensile stress developed and the resultant strain can be calculated. Stress is calculated based on the applied load and cross-sectional area. Strain is the change in length divided by the original length.

Material Properties and machine

STRENGTH - the greatest stress that the material can withstand prior to failure. DUCTILITY - a material property that allows it to undergo considerable plastic deformation under a load before failure. ELASTICITY - a material property that allows it to retain its original dimensions after removal of a deforming load. STIFFNESS - a material property that allows a material to withstand high stress without great strain

Terms
Necking: The localized decrease in diameter in a specimen near the rupture point. Elastic Deformation Region: The area of a stress - strain curve where the specimen will deform under load, yet return to its original shape when the load is removed. Plastic Deformation: Deformation that occurs once the object has been stressed past its elastic limit. The deformation is no longer reversible.

The classic cup & cone shape of a fairly ductile tensile fracture is visible here.

Microstructure

IMPACT TEST
An impact test is a dynamic test conducted on a selected specimen which is usually notched. The specimen is struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed machine. This demo illustrates the experiment setup, procedure and the energy absorbed in an impact test.

Impact Testing Introduction

A specimen under test will exhibit different properties, depending on the rate at which the load is applied. For example, most materials will exhibit greater strength is the load is applied in a slower, gentler manner (static loading) than suddenly (dynamic). Because properties are strain-rate dependent, tests have been standardized to determine the energy required to break materials used sudden blows. These are termed impact tests. Impact tests generally involve sudden shock loading that results in breakage of the specimen. The result is calculated based on the energy required to break the specimen and the resultant loss of momentum. This can be calculated if one knows the initial energy and final energy or the initial angle and final angle of the object used to break the specimen. The Izod and Charpy tests are commonly used to measure impact strength. They differ only slightly, the configuration and specifications of the test specimen.

Machine and specimen setting

Specimen
Work piece setting

Cont.,

Test setup

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
Non-destructive testing of materials is the method of detecting defects or flaws in welds without impairing the usefulness of the component or structure under test. Visual Examination Liquid- Penetrant testing, Magnetic particle testing, Eddy current testing, Radiographic testing, Ultrasonic testing,

Visual inspection
Visual inspection (VI) is probably the most widely used among the non-destructive tests. It is simple, easy to apply, quickly carried out, and usually low in cost. With the advent of CCD cameras, microprocessors and computers, visual examination can be carried out very reliably and with minimum cost. Image processing, pattern recognition and automatic accept/reject choice are used when large number of components are to be assessed.

Visual inspection examination of a weld on its completion will indicate the following
Has correct fusion been obtained between weld metal and parent metal? Is there an indentation denoting undercutting along the line where the weld joins the parent metal? Has penetration been obtained right through the joint, indicated by the weld metal appearing through the bottom of the single "V" or "U" joint? Has the joint been built up on its upper side (reinforced) or does the weld have a concave side on its face, denoting lack of metal and thus weakness?

Cont..,
Are the dimensions of the weld correct, tested by gauges? Conformity of welds to size, fit-up and control requirements. Acceptability of weld appearance with regard to surface roughness, weld spatter, undercuts and overlaps. Imperfections and cracks on the observed surfaces. Lack of root penetration or excess penetration. Pits, blow holes, end plate lamination. Craters, uneven ripples etc.

Liquid penetrant testing (LPT)

Liquid penetrant testing (LPT) is another NDT method to detect surface defects and also subsurface defects open to surface in welded materials. This method can be used in root pass and subsequent passes to detect surface defects and repair the defect in the weld. In this method, a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of a product for a certain predetermined time during which the penetrant seeps through any surface opening defect by capillary action. Subsequently, the excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which remains in the discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence as well as the location, size and nature of the discontinuity the testing procedure and the sequence employed.

Liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the product for a certain predetermined time

Penetrant seeps through the defects by capiIIiary action

Excess penetrant is removed

Surface is dried and developer applied

Penetrant remained in the defect is absorbed by the developer Presence, location, size and nature of defect is revealed

LPT process Diagram

Magnetic Particle Testing

For detection of surface and sub-surface defects in welded components, liquid penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing (MPT) are being widely used.

This method is based on the principle that 'when a ferromagnetic material under test is magnetized, discontinuities which lie in a direction generally transverse to the magnetic field will cause a leakage field around the discontinuity'. When finely divided ferromagnetic powder is sprinkled over the surface, some of these particles are gathered and held by the leakage field.

Material is Magnetised

Defects which lie in a direction transverse to the field cause leakage field around them
Ferromagnetic powder is sprinkled over the surface

Particles gather and are held by the leakage field

Outline of the discontinuity is formed indicating its location, shape and extent

Compound demagnetised

Test Diagram

 This magnetically held collection of particles from an outline of the discontinuity indicates its location, shape and extent .To get the highest sensitivity, fluorescent magnetic particles suspended in oil using full wave DC continuous technique is employed.
The test method consists of magnetisation of the component, applying magnetic powder, examination of powder patterns and demagnetisation of the component. The magnetic particle testing is a sensitive method of locating small and shallow surface cracks in ferromagnetic materials. Indications may be produced at cracks that are large enough. Wide cracks will not produce a particle pattern if the surface opening is too wide for the particles to bridge. If a discontinuity is fine and sharp and close to the surface, such as a long stringer of non metallic inclusion, a sharp indication will be produced. If the discontinuity lies deeper, the indication is less distinct. Magnetic particle indications are produced directly on the surface of the part, and constitute magnetic pictures of actual discontinuities. There is little or no limitation on the size or shape of the part being inspected. Ordinarily no elaborate pre-cleaning is necessary and cracks filled with foreign materials can be detected.

Radiography Testing
Radiography is a volumetric NDT method based on differential absorption of penetrating radiation by the component or test inspected using: (a) either electromagnetic radiations of very short wave lengths (X_-rays or -rays ) (b) Particle radiations( , or neutron). Differences in density and variation in thickness of the part or differences in absorption characteristics (causing change in density) caused by variations in composition and presence of defects, different portions of a test piece absorb different amounts of penetrating radiation.

 In conventional radiography, an object is irradiated by a beam of X-rays (or y rays) and the portion of the radiation that is not absorbed by the object impinges on a sheet of film. The unabsorbed radiation exposes the film emulsion, similar to the exposes the film in photography. Development of the film produces an image that is a two dimensional shadow picture of the object. Variations in density, thickness or composition of the object being inspected, cause variation's in the intensity of unabsorbed radiation and appear as variations photographic density in the developed film . Evaluation of the radiograph is based on a comparison of the difference in photographic density with known characteristics of the object Itself or defects present in the test object.

 In proton radiography, when a beam of mono-energetic protons is transmitted through the thickness of a material, most of the attenuation occurs after the beam has traversed through 90% of range. It is possible to detect thickness changes the order of 0.05% by proton radiography which is an order of magnitude better than with conventional radiographic sources. The advantage of mono energetic proton radiography for NDT is its excellent thickness discrimination capability. In addition, the low attenuation of the beam over the first 80-90% of its range offers a potential advantage for radiography of biological specimens. The source of protons is often a cyclotron. The proton energy must be matched to specimen thickness. Film and intensifying screens used in proton radiography are similar to those used in conventional X-radiography.

Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a NDT method in which sound waves of high frequency (in MHz range) are introduced into the material being inspected to detect internal flaws (defects) and to study the properties of the material. The sound waves travel into the material with some loss of energy due to attenuation and are reflected at interfaces. In most of the applications, the reflected beam is detected and analysed to define the presence and location of defects and for quantitative evaluation.

 Ultrasonic inspection is mostly carried out at frequencies between 1 and 25 MHz. The inspection system includes. An electronic flaw detector having a sweep circuit, pulse generator, clock circuit and a cathode ray tube. A transducer (probe or search unit) having a piezoelectric crystal that emits a beam of ultrasonic waves when bursts of alternating voltages are applied to it. A couplant to transfer energy of the ultrasonic waves to the test piece (material).

THREE TYPES OF WAVES

LONGITUDINAL WAVES TRANSVERSE (OR) SHEAR WAVE SURFACE WAVES

 The degree of reflection depends largely on the physical state of the matter on the opposite side of the interface and on specific physical properties of that matter.
The sound waves are a most completely reflected at metalgas (air) interfaces, partial reflection occurs at metal-liquid or metal-solid interfaces. The reflected energy depends mainly on the ratio of certain properties of the matter (e.g. Impedence = Density x velocity).Defects like cracks, shrinkage cavities, lack of fusion, pores and bonding faults which act like metalgas interfaces can be easily detected by this method. Inclusions and other in homogeneties in the metal can also be detected due to partial reflection or scattering of the ultrasonic waves. This widely used NDT method has a lot of applications like defining bond characteristics, measurement of thickness of components, estimation of corrosion and determination of physical properties. microstructure, grain size and elastic constants.