Precis of Post-

Petroleum Energetics
Including Seawater
Agriculture
Dennis Bushnell
Chief Scientist
NASA Langley Research Center
 The (Economic) Ages of 
Humankind
• Hunter/Killer groups (~1 Million ­ ~5K BC)
• Agriculture (~5K BC ­ ~1850 AD)
• Industrial (~1850 AD ­ ~1950 AD)
• Information/BIO/NANO(~1950 AD ­ ~2030 
AD)
• Virtual (~2030 ­ ?)
•Hunter­Gatherer ­ “Nature Provided”
•Agriculture ­ Controlled Nature 
(Plants/Animals)
•Industrial ­ Mechanized Agriculture
      [1800­97% Farmers,Now­2%] 
•IT/BIO/Nano ­ Automating 
Industry/Agriculture
•Virtual ­ Robotization of 
IT/Bio/Nano/Industry/Agriculture
Humans Have “Taken Over” and Vastly
Shortened “Evolution”
[Human Engendered~E7 times “Natural”]
Of the Planet
Global Warming/Pollution/Deforestation
Huge “Public Works” (e.g. 3 Gorges 
Dam)
Of the Human Species
Genomic Design and Repair
“Mind Children” (Moravec)
Products/Life Forms
Cross Species Molecular Breeding
“Directed Evolution” (Maxygen etc.)
Human Environment changing from
      “Natural” [before],
       to “Manmade” [Now]
  To VIRTUAL [Evolving Future]  
 - CO2 levels are NOW greater
than at any time in the last
650,000 Years………
- Tundra Melting,Releasing
huge amounts of Methane…….
- European Gulf Stream
Heating reduced by 30%
[overlying fresh water from
melting glaciers?]…….
“Prevention of collapse of the
Ecosystem has now become
the overwhelming issue”

European Commission on Key

Technologies for Europe,2005
Rational[s] for “Going Green”
• Escalating Price of Petroleum
• “Warming” [ Including Acidic
Oceans]
• National Security/Geo-Politics
• Economics/ Balance of Payments
• Personal Economics/
“Independence”
         THE KEY TECHNOLOGIES
(highly synergistic / at the frontiers of the small / in a 
“feeding frenzy” off each other)
• IT (comms/computing/sensors/electronics/machine 
intelligence)
• Bio (genomics/molecular biology/designer life forms)
• Nano (coatings/barriers/computers/sensors/materials/
“assemblers”)
• Energetics (HEDM (various)/revol. 
solar/biomass/explosives/propellants/storage)
• Quantum 
[crypto/computing/sensors/optics/Electronics]
• Societal Technological Systems (motivational 
The [Major] Societal Problems

• Warming [Anthropogenic CO2-Induced,

Attendant Arctic and Ocean Methane
Release]
• Consequent “Green Energy”
Requirement,
Requirement Simultaneous Demise of
“Cheap Oil”
• Shortages of Water & Arable Land
• An Increasing Food Shortage
Current Worldwide Energy Usage
• Petroleum - 140 Exojoules
• Natural Gas - 85
• Coal - 90
• Biomass - 55 [ Potential to 4,000+ ]
• Nuclear Fission - 28
• Hydroelectric - 9
• Geothermal - 2 [ potential to 5,000 ]
• Solar - .2 [ Potential to 1,600+ ]
• Others [Wind, etc.] - ~7
 Petroleum [Transportation
Fuel] Outlook
• In General,”Cheap Oil” Production is peaking
or has peaked.Residual supplies will have
greater production costs.Increasing
Petroleum demand,particularly from the
developing world ,will ensure ever increasing
oil prices and shifts,from purely economic
drivers, to “Alternatives” [H2,Biomass]
• Demand Example - U.S. has 745 vehicles per
1,000 population.China,the second largest oil
importer, has 3 vehicles per 1,000
population.If China goes to 5 Vehicles per
1,000 Population they will have to DOUBLE
their Oil Imports to 10 Million Barrels/Day
 Energy and Warming
• 75% of Energy Usage is releasing climate-
changing amounts of Fossil Carbon as
CO2
• This Fossil CO2 warming is releasing
Fossil Methane from the Tundra and
seabeds,Methane some 22X more of a
warming gas than CO2,A Warming
“Accelerant”
• Of the “Renewables”,only Solar [via
Biomass and “Other Approaches] has the
potential to provide the requisite
“Capacity” [Wind,Hydro,Conv. Nuc
cannot….]
• Biomass Produces Liquid Fuels and is
less expensive than “other Solar”
 [Direct] Solar Energy
Utilization Spectrum
• Biomass
• PV [emerging Plastic/Nano PV,1/10th the
cost…., to 70% efficiency?]
• H2 from Photosynthesis [Genomic
Biologics and artificial Photosynthesis]
• Photo-Catalytic Disassociation of Water
• Solar Furnaces/Concentrators/Direct
Heating [including Zn production for H2
“Storage”/ Generation..]
 Biomass Benefits
• Renewable
• Nearly “CO2-Neutral”
• No New H2 infrastructure Required
• Minimal Sulfur
• Relatively Inexpensive
• Energy costs of biomass
production/Processing up to an order of
magnitude less than Energy “Yields”
- Capacity/Tonnage Currently limited by
“sweet” water and arable land
 “Bio-Refineries”
• Bio-Chemical,Enzymatic
Hydrolysis/Fermentation of Biomass
into Sugars,Lignin,alcohol and Methane
• Thermochemical,Pyrolysis/gasification,
Conversion to gas/liquid/solid mix,catalysis
producing Biopolymers and Liquid or
Gaseous Fuels
• Chemical,Biomass Oil conversion to
“BioDiesel” etc. fuels
- Due to costs of Biomass transportation, Bio-
refineries should be “Distributed”/“Scalable”,
Products largely delivered/deliverable via
Pipelines
 Sampling - Biomass
Utilization Archipelago
• Transportation/Liquid Fuels [Distill/Refine
it]
• Direct Heat Generation [Burn it]
• Direct Electricity Generation [Bio Fuel
Cells]
• Food [via Genomics]
• “Petro-Chemical Feed-Stock [Plastics etc.]
• Direct H2 Production [e.g.
Fermentation/Algae feeding]
• On Site Micro-Power/Co-[electricity]
Generation
Biomass Energy Potential[s]
• 6% of U.S. land mass producing
Biomass could supply the U.S. with
current Oil AND Natural Gas Usage
• Estimates indicate that Biomass
grown on the Sahara [only] could
supply the World’s Energy
Requirement[s]…
 “Water Scarcity is now the
single greatest threat to
Human Health,The
Environment and the Global
Food Supply”
 The Emerging Desert Mantra
[Some 44% of land worldwide is
“Wasteland”]
• Desert Area Characteristics
- Sunlight
- Brackish/Saline Ground Water
- Many near/on seacoasts
• Utilize these “Resources” For:
- Nano-Plastic PV
- Saline-Seawater Agriculture for
Biomass/Energy and Food
 Conventional/Historical “Wisdom” -
Seawater/Saline
incursions/occurance Detrimental-to-
Disasterous for Agriculture

Unconventional -
Saline/Salt water
Agriculture a Viable-to-
Desirable Alternative to
Conventional
Agriculture
 Saline/Seawater Agriculture
• Quasi-Conventional:
- For Food & Fodder
- “Reclaim”/Desalinate land via Biologics
• Unconventional
- For
Land,Water,Energy,Warming,Mineral
s,Food and Terra-Forming/enhanced
Rainfall i.e. STRATEGIC Not Tactical,
to Contribute to ALL the Major
Problems,not just food
 Advantages of Seawater AG

• 97% of all water is seawater,

will not “Run Out”
• Seawater Contains:
- wide variety of important minerals
- ~ 80% of Nutrients required for Agriculture
[need to add Nitrogen,Phosphorus and Iron]
• In proximity to a number of Dry/Desert
Areas
 Mineral Extraction from
Seawater
- “[Conventional] mining is one of the most
environmentally damaging activities carried
out by Humans”
• Seawater AG puts “missing/trace Minerals”
back into Food Supply
• Current Seawater Mineral Extraction -
Magnesium,Bromide,Salts,Phosphorites,
Metallic Sulfides,
• “Seawater and Brines appear destined to
replace Mineral Ores as the main source of
Light Metals”
• Nascent [low cost/energy] Bio/Algae
Extraction Approaches….
 Alternative Seawater AG
Employment Approaches
• Desalinization [in General,too
expensive for Agriculture]
• Cold/deeper Ocean water to [via heat
exchangers] precipitate moisture from
the atmosphere
• Seawater Greenhouses [involve
vaporization/re-precipitation]
• Direct Plant Seawater Irrigation
 Some Numbers
• Sahara some 2E9 (2 billion) Acres
• 1.2 Acre Meters Required for Agriculture/Irrigation
[per year]
• Average Sahara Elevation some 450 Meters
• ~ cost to pump 1.2 acre meters of Seawater to 450
Meters altitude [vertical lift only] some $1200/Acre
• 1 Acre produces 10-to-40 tons of dry Biomass per
year
• I Ton of dry Biomass provides 16E6 BTU’s = 2.75
Barrels of Oil
• @ $60/Barrel of oil,1 ton of Biomass worth [after
“refining”] ~ $165 [other estimates,which include
Addit. Goodness factors [e.g. countering warming]
are as high as $300-$700/ton]
• @ 20 Tons/Acre and $165/ton Value of an Acre of
Biomass = $~3300
 Irrigation Influences Upon
Rainfall
• “Irrigation can Represent an Enormous
Perturbation of the Regional Atmospheric
Water and Heat Balance”
• Cool,Wet Surface increases low level
Atmospheric Instabilities,incites “Storms”
• Various Studies Indicate -
- 18%-25% precipitation Increase [from only .4
acre meter Irrigation]
- Irrigation increased Rainfall by 91%
- Irrigation and Vegetation changes are
clear dominating factors with direct
influence upon atmospheric water content
 Halophyte [Salt-Plant]
Utilization [Per Yensen]
• Patents issued for Halophyte Crop[s]
[Genetics,Genomics]
• 10,000+ “Natural” Halophyte Plants,250 of
these are potential “Staple” crops
• Research ongoing on/for Halophilic [Salt-
LOVING] Halophytes,The more salt the
faster the growth…
• Huge areas worldwide are already salt-
affected [1 B Hectares] and another Billion
Hectares overlie Saline Aquifers.
• Over 100 halophyte plants now in “trials”
for “Commercial” applications
 [Sample] Countries with
Saline AG projects
• China • Egypt
• Mexico • Iran
• Eritria • Morocco
• India • U.S.
• Pakistan • Saudi Arabia
• Israel • Syria
• Libya • UAE
• Jordan • Kuwait
• Tunisia • Australia
- Current Status,Prototype • Sudan
Farms/Experiments for
FOOD
 Chinese Seawater AG
Reporting
• Genetically Modified [grown on “Beaches”
using Seawater]:
- Tomato
- Eggplant
- Pepper
- Wheat
- Rice
- Rapeseed
The Potential[s] for enhanced
[Halophyte] Plant Growth via
Nano/Bio Technology thought
to be Large, 60%
improvements thus far,
“Only Beginning”
- An Example Requisite Capability -
Nitrogen Fixation
[utilization/extraction from the air]
 On-going Research Areas
• Enhanced Plant growth rates and
enhanced “Salt-Loving”
• Reduced water/nutrient Requirements
• Irrigation Efficiency Improvements
• Plant /Lifeform tailoring for specific Bio-
Conversion/Refining Processes
• ‘Safe”/’Contained” Saline/Seawater
Irrigation Practices,Avoid-to-Obviate
Fresh Aquifer Contamination
 Suggested Seawater Ag
Biomass “Solution” Mix
• Seawater Irrigation near “dry” and flattish
Coastal areas
• Saline irrigation where Saline Aquifers are
available at Reasonable Pumping Depths
• Seawater Irrigation inland where
Economics appear feasible
• Enhanced rainfall induced by Irrigation
[the “Terraforming” aspect(s)]
 TerraForming -1
• Altering a Planetary Surface to make it
suitable for Terrestrial life
• Seawater AG for Biomass Energy can be
of sufficient magnitude to qualify as Terra-
Forming
• Humans have long practiced “Anti-
Terraforming” with neither plan nor
prediction
• It appears timely/necessary to attempt
terraforming but with both Plan and
Prediction…
TerraForming -2 [Raddatz and
Knom]
• The Biosphere/Surface vegetation plays
a dominant role on climate
• Vegetation can affect continent-scale
atmospheric motion[s]. The interaction
between Atmosphere and land cover
can be HIGHLY NON-LINEAR…..
 [Obvious] Terraforming
Modeling/Computation
Requirements/Inputs
• Irrigated Land Area
• Type of Vegetation/Evaporation Rate
• Vegetation Coverage
• Atmospheric Particulate details [allow
cloud formation at .1% super-saturation]
• Utilization of both “Boundary Layer
Meteorology and Global Circulation/Earth
System Models
• ETC……
 Bottom Line Enablers/”Pull” -
Saline/Seawater Biomass
Irrigation
• Oil Prices now high enough [and going
higher] to make the economics worth looking
into [again]
• H2 Infrastructure Costs & Storage issues
• Potential Halophyte Genomic improvements
• Global Warming,Green Energy Requirements
• Increasing shortages of Sweet water/”Arable
Land”
- Requires SERIOUS Forecasting……
 Advantages of Shallow Sea/Desert
Production of Biomass (Via Seawater
Irrigation - energy, warming, food,land,
water)
• Closed CO2 Cycle (Obviates Global
Warming)
• Food
• Petro-chemical feedstock [plastics etc.]
• ENERGY
• Terraforming, alter desertification etc.
• Preservation/Production of Fresh Water
• Rich Mineral source (Seawater)
• Utilization of “Wastelands” (Sahara, etc.)
• Seawater has 85% of plant nutrients
 Frontier Energetics
(Production/Storage)
• Biomass via saltwater agriculture
• Solar H2 production
– efficient visible light (vs. just ultraviolet)
photocatalytic electrolysis of water
• CNT H2 storage, Zeolite H2 storage
• Direct plant and bacteria H2 production
• SMES/CNT magnets
– 2 to 20 X energy density of O2 - H2 fuel (in a
battery)
• Efficient direct conversion (thermal to
electric), “thermal diodes (~24%),Nano-
Voids [~30%]
• Advanced Geothermal
 Frontier Energetics
(Production/Storage)
• LENRS and “nano­fusion” (ala G. Miley, 
DOE/NAVY),Muon­Catalyzed Fusion
• CNT Flywheels
• Isomers/Quantum nucleonics
Several, ~105 X HE
• Offshore methane hydrate
106 greater than known natural gas 
reserves
• Hydrogen/Boron­11 Fusion ­ charged 
particle/Direct conversion,”Dense Plasma 
 Aneutronic H-B11 Fusion
Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion
[QED,IEC,IEF]
• Produces Protons,Direct MHD
Electricity Generation vice [Neutron]
Thermalization
• Reduced Radiation Hazard[s]/Weight
• High Thrust-to-weight AND High Isp [via
reduced shielding,magnetics,High
Power Drivers]
• For SSTO,Payload Mass Fraction is ~
14%,Launch Cost Estimate ~ $100/lb
 Frontier Energetics
(Production/Storage)
•   Femto­second laser/other production of 
anti­matter/positrons
•   Bose­Einstein condensate/Positronium  
storage of Positrons
•   HEDM (MIC, SBER, nano­powders, cold 
silicon, solid H2, atomic C/B/H, cubanes, 
metastable He,Etc…)
•   Bacteria­based fuel cells
•   Plastic Nano PV,factor of 10 cost 
reduction,2X Efficiency [Nanocrystals]
 Antimatter Fuels/Propulsion
Approaches
• Positrons - Stored as
Positronium?,Gamma emission used for
heating,also - via direct conversion
could yield Electrical Energy for 2000
Sec. Isp High Thrust MHD Acceleration,
negligible fuel fraction…
• Trigger Fission at 100% [vice < 5%] for
fission “nuc” Propulsion
• Antihydrogen - Stored as Bose-Einstein
Condensate,”Harvest” from Van Allen
Belts
Energetics in the “Post­Petroleum” Age
• BioMass via Seawater Agriculture on 
Wastelands[Land,water,food.energy,warming]
• Plastic Nano PV 
•Advanced Geothermal
• Genomic Bacteria H2 Production
•Artificial Photo­Synthesis H2 Production 
• Photo­Catalytic Electrolysis of H2O
• H­B11 Fusion,LENR’s 
•Wildcard ­ ZPE

Conservation via “Light Diodes”,Thermal 
Diodes,CNT Computing,”Tele­Everything”, 
Fuel Cells,CNT­enabled weight reductions
 Worldwide IT Revolution
• Comms/Computing/Sensors/Electronics
• Factor of E07 since ’59 [Moores’ Law] 
• Factor of E08 to E12 further 
improvement [Silicon,Molecular/CNT, 
Quantum, Bio, Optical]
• Beyond Human Machine Intelligence?
• Automatics/Robotics “in the large”
• Immersive multi­sensory VR/”Holodecks”
• Ubiquitous multi physics/hyperspectral 
sensors [land/sea/air/space]
 IMPACTS OF ONGOING IT
REVOLUTION UPON SOCIETY
• Work (at home telecommuting, reduced local/corporal
travel)
• Shopping (at home web based, (robotic?) delivery)
• Entertainment/leisure (at home immersive 3-D
interactive/multi-sensory via VR/holographic
projection)
• Travel (3-D/interactive/multi-sensory tele-travel)
• Education (at home low cost asynchronous, web based
on-demand, highly motivational, life-long distance
learning, .edu)
• Health (at home interactive tele-medicine)
• Politics (increased real-time virtual involvement of the
body politic)
• Commerce (tele-commerce already ubiquitous)
• Tele-Socialization, Tele -[onsite] Manufacturing
 SOME IT “PREDICTIONS”
• Quantum computing initially
available in 5 years
• 15% of all power today is used by
computers, will reach 60% by 2020?
• Wearable/implantable (on-person)
electronics--comms, computing,
sensory augmentation, health
monitoring, brain stimulation
 Global Warming “Solutions”
• Green Energy
• Conservation
• Genomic Biologics w/greatly increased
CO2 Uptake
• Trigger Calderas [Nascent Volcanoes],Put
massive amounts of dust in the
Atmosphere
• Nano-Particulates spread on the
monolayer of surfactant on the Oceans’
Surface to alter Albedo
• Gigantic reflective films/membranes in
orbit
• Seed Oceans with iron to provoke/enable
Phytoplankton Blooms
 Nominal Power Densities
• ZPE……………………..E108 X Chemical
•Anti­Matter/Positrons….. E10 X Chemical
• Fission/Fusion………….. E6  X Chemical
• Isomers…………………. E5  X Chemical
• SBER…………………… E2  X Chemical
• Hydrogen……………..……..38    KWH/Kg
• HC…………………………..14             “
• Advanced Flywheels………. .9 ­ 20?     “
• Batteries………….. ………. .04 ­ 10?       “
 Energetics “Wild Cards” Being
Worked
• Solitons for Low Divergence Power Beaming
• Positron Storage as Positronium
• High Efficiency Plastic Nano PV
• 30%+ Thermo-Electrics
• High Efficiency [KW/KG] Fuel Cells
• “On-Site” H2 Generation vice Storage [Zinc,….]
• Room Temperature S-C
• Tapping ZPE
• Controlled Nuclear Isomer Release
• SMES with CNT Magnets
• Lithium Tantalate Crystals
 Soliton Energy Transfer…..
• Solitons are waves in non-linear
systems which are non-
dispersive,”maintain amplitude”
• Utilized in optical communications
[information transfer],up to 1,000,000
Km thus far
• Physics evidently allows utilization for
Energy Transfer,Not yet accomplished
- Would change Energetics MUCH [DE
weaponry, SPSats, Beamed Energy
Propulsion,……]
 First-Order Impacts of Nano
upon Energetics
[Improved Performance/Cost &
Requirement Reductions]
• Fuel Cells
• Photovoltaics
• H2 Storage [Casimir Forces?]
• Supercapacitors
• Batteries
• Structural dry weight reductions
[1/3rd-1/8th]
 Hydrogen Sources
• Genomic Bio Photosynthesis
• “Artificial” Photosynthesis
• Electrolysis:
- Direct visible light Photo-Catalysis
- Plastic Nano PV Energy
- Bio Mass [Incl.Seawater Agric.] Energy
- Ocean Thermal,Wind Energy
- “Usual” Energy Sources [Hydro,Nuc,….]
• Reformation [JP,Methane,Ammonia….]
• Coal Gasification[w/H20]
• Sulfur-iodine Thermo-chemical Cycle
[w/H2O]
 Hydrogen Storage
• Cryo [incl. Slush, Solid]
• CNT’s/Zeolites [Casimir Force
Optimization,Doping]] , CNT Structure
• CNT Pressure Vessels,
• Lithium Nitride,Graphite Nanofibers
• Ammonia,Ammonia Borane [PNNL]
• Methane,Gas Hydrates
• Porous Magnesium Alloys
• Titanium doped Hydrides
• Glass/Polymer Microspheres
• Metal/Organic Frameworks
 [An] Outlook for H2
• Biologic H2 sources could provide a
“Green” H2 Supply
• H2 Infrastructure would take too long to
put in place [ compared to
warming/petroleum problem[s] time
scales] and is exceedingly expensive
• Hydrogen Storage is still nascent, Nano
Tech including Casimir Force Engineering
could “help”

- Bottom Line[s]……Biofuel[s] [ using

existing infrastructures] are/will be the
Green transportation fuel of choice.
Suggested Green Energy Best
Bets/“Ways Forward”
• Seawater Ag, Aquaculture - Biofuels
• Nano Plastic PV
• Advanced Geothermal
• 20%-30% Efficient Thermoelectrics
[ “Harvesting”, cycle efficiency ]
• SMES w/CNT Magnets [ 10X Chem storage?]
• Positron storage as Positronium?
BTW - “Conventional Nuc Fission Fuel Cycle
Waste a Serious ”Problem” [near term waste
storage approach is casks on an open
parking lot at an Indian Reservation……]
 Physics Outlook/Issues

• Quantum and Relativity do not “Merge”

• They do not explain “Dark Energy”
• They do not explain “Dark Matter”
• They do not provide an “understanding”
of “Non-Locality”
• Where did the Anti-Matter Go?……
• Many other “Unsolved Problems”…..
The Great Unsolved Problems
in Physics [ Smolin]
• Combine Relativity and Quantum into a
single, complete theory
• Resolve the problems in the
foundations of Quantum
• Explain Dark Matter and Energy
• Explain the values of the some 20
constants in the Standard Model
• Unification of the Particles and Forces
[ including gravity]
Extant “Explanation” Approaches
[Samples,Additional Degrees of Freedom,
Experimental Verification TBD..]
• Time Reversals/Retrocausation
• Extra [Spatial] Dimensions
- Many Worlds/Multiverses
- String/M/Brane Theories [ to 11 Dim.]
- 5 Dim. Larger Universe/ “The Bulk”
• “Larger Constructs”
- Bohm Quantum Potential
- Holographic Universe
- Puthoff ZPAether
- The “Bulk”
 What is Sought are
“Explanations” for Dark
Matter/Energy and Non-Locality
Etc. which satisfy Occam’s
Razor.
Once Found/Determined the
Ensuing/Enabled Technologies
should be Seriously
Revolutionary,including wrt
Energy, Stay Tuned…….