1

ISAT 413 - Module IV:

Combustion and Power Generation

Topic 3: Fossil Fuels and Boiler Efficiency
Fossil Fuels
Fluid-Moving Systems
Combustion Methods and Systems
Steam Generators
Boiler Types and Classifications
Primary Boiler Heat-Transfer Surfaces
Secondary Boiler Heat-Transfer Surfaces
Boiler Ratings and Performance
2
Fossil Fuels
The three general classes of fossil fuels are coal, oil,
and natural gas.

Hydrocarbon Chemistry

There are three major groups of hydrocarbon
compounds the aliphatic hydrocarbons, the alicyclic
hydrocarbons, and the aromatic hydrocarbons.

The aliphatic or chain hydrocarbons are further
divided into three subgroups the alkane, the alkene,
and the alkyne hydrocarbons.
3
The alkane hydrocarbons, also called paraffin series,
are the saturated group of chain hydrocarbons. The
general chemical formula for this group is C
n
H
2n+2
. such
as Methane (CH
4
), Ethane (C
2
H
6
), Propane (C
3
H
8
), Butane
(C
4
H
10
), Pentane (C
5
H
12
), Hexane (C
6
H
14
), Heptane
(C
7
H
16
), Octane (C
8
H
18
), Nonane (C
9
H
20
), Decane (C
10
H
22
),
etc. As the number of atoms in the alkane molecules
increase, the hydrogen fraction decreases and the
hydrocarbons become less volatile. Figure below shows
the chemical structure of n-Octane.
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
H
4
The alkene hydrocarbons, also called olefin series,
have one double bond between two of the carbon atoms
in the chain. The general formula for this group is C
n
H
2n
,
and some of the typical compounds are ethylene (C
2
H
4
),
propylene (C
3
H
6
) (left), butene (C
4
H
8
), pentene (C
5
H
10
),
and hexene (C
6
H
12
).
H C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
The alkyne hydrocarbons, also called acetylene series,
have one triple bond in the hydrocarbon chain. The
general formula for this group is C
n
H
2(n-1)
, and some of
the typical compounds are acetylene (C
2
H
2
), and
ethylacetylene (C
4
H
6
) (right).
H C
H
H
C H C C
H
H
5
The alicyclic hydrocarbons are composed of saturated
carbon-atom rings and have a general formula that is
identical to that of the alkene subgroup of aliphatic
hydrocarbons, i.e., C
n
H
2n
, some of the typical
compounds are cyclopropane (C
3
H
6
), cyclobutane (C
4
H
8
),
(top), and cyclopentane (C
5
H
10
).
The aromatic hydrocarbons are
composed of the basic benzene
ring or rings. The ring is a six-atom
carbon ring with double bonds
between every other carbon atom.
The general formula for this group
is C
n
H
2n-6
, some of the typical
compounds are benzene (C
6
H
6
)
(bottom), toluene (C
7
H
8
), xylene
(C
8
H
10
), and naphthalene (C
10
H
8
).
H C
H
H
C
H
H
H C C
H
H
H C
H
H
C
H
C C
H
H
C
C
6
Standard Fuels
The 100-octane fuel standard for internal-combustion-
engine is 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, C
8
H
18
(isooctane),
while 0-octane fuel standard is n-heptane, C
7
H
16
. The
unknown fuel is burned in the engine and the
compression ratio is slowly increased until a certain
knock or detonation reading is obtained from a
vibration detector. The octane ratings of most regular
gasolines range from 85 to 95.
The 100-cetane fuel standard for compression-ignition
or diesel fuels is n-hexadecane (C
16
H
34
), while 0-cetane
fuel standard is alpha-methylnaphthalene (C
11
H
10
). The
cetane ratings of most diesel fuels range between 30
and 60.
7
Coal
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has
developed a method that ranks coal into four
classifications:
Class I coals: Anthracitic coals, the oldest.
Class II coals: Bituminous coals.
Class III coals: Subbituminous coals.
Class IV coals: Lignitic coals.
Coal Analyses
The two common coal analyses are the proximate
analysis and the ultimate analysis.
8
Proximate Analysis
The proximate analysis is the simplest coal analysis
and gives the mass fractions of fixed carbon (FC),
volatile matter (VM), ash (A), and moisture (M) in the
coal.
This analysis can be determined by simply weighing,
heating, and burning a small sample of powdered coal.
The coal sample is carefully weighed and then heated
to 110
o
C for 20 min. The sample is then weighed again
and the mass loss is divided by the original mass to
obtain the moisture fraction.
The remaining sample is heated to 954
o
C in a closed
container for 7 min. The sample is then reweighed and
the resulting mass loss in this heating process is
divided by the original mass to obtain the fraction of
the volatile matter in the sample.
9
The sample is then heated to 732
o
C in an open crucible
until it is completely burned. The residue is then
weighed and the final weight is divided by the original
weight to obtain the ash fraction.
The mass fraction of fixed carbon is obtained by
subtracting the moisture, volatile matter, and ash
fractions from unity.
In addition to the FC, VM, M, and A, most proximate
analyses list separately the sulfur mass fraction (S)
and the higher heating value (HHV) of the coal.
10
Ultimate Analysis
The ultimate coal analysis is a laboratory analysis that
lists the mass fractions of carbon, C, hydrogen (H
2
),
oxygen (O
2
), nitrogen (N
2
), and sulfur (S) in the coal
along with the higher heating value.
Most ultimate analyses include the moisture and ash
separately, but some analyses include the moisture as
part of the hydrogen and oxygen mass fractions.
The ultimate analysis is required to determine the
combustion-air requirements for a given combustion
system and this, in turn, is used to size the draft
system for the furnace.
These calculations should be based on the as-burned,
ultimate coal analysis, if possible.
11
Coal Properties
There are a number of properties that should be
considered when selecting a coal for a given application.
Among these are its sulfur content, its burning
characteristics, its weatherability, its ash-softening
temperature, its grindability index, and its energy
content.
It is desirable to use a coal with a low sulfur content.
If the coal is burned in a stationary bed with little
agitation, the coal should be a free-burning coal, not a
caking coal; caking coals must be mechanically agitated
when they are burned to break up the fused-coal masses.
The weatherability of a coal is a measure of its ability
to withstand exposure to atmospheric conditions without
excessive crumbling.
12
The grindability index is another important property
that should be considered when selecting a coal. This is
particularly true for the common pulverized-coal power
system where the coal is ground up finer than face
powder.
The ash-softening temperature is an important
consideration in the choice of coals for a particular
power plant. The ash-softening temperature is the
temperature where the ash becomes very plastic,
somewhat below the melting point of the ash. Slagging
occurs as ash deposits build up on the heat-transfer
surfaces.
The energy content or heating value of a coal is a very
important property. The heating value represents the
amount of chemical energy in a given mass or volume of
fuel. HHV = LHV + h
fg,fuel
.

13
Petroleum
Although crude oil is a composition of many organic
compounds, the ultimate analyses of all crude oils are
fairly constant. The carbon mass fraction ranges from 84
to 87%, the hydrogen mass fraction ranges from 11 to
16%, the sum of oxygen and nitrogen mass fractions
range from 0 to 7%, and the sulfur mass fraction ranges
from 0 to 4%.
There are six grades of commercial fuel oil. No. 1 is the
lightest, least viscous, for vaporizing burners. No. 2 is a
distillate oil and is the general-purpose domestic heating
oil. No. 3 is no longer available. No. 4 is a relatively light
heating oil. No. 5 is a heavy, viscous, commercial-grade
heating oil, and No. 6, or bunker-C oil, is the heaviest
and most viscous of the residual fuel oils. Both Nos. 5
and 6 oils require heating before they can be pumped.
14
Petroleum Properties
The important properties of petroleum and petroleum
products are the heating value, the specific gravity, the
flash point, and the pour point.
The specific gravity, s, of any liquid is the density of
that liquid divided by the density of water at 15.6
o
C.
The flash point of a liquid fuel is the minimum fluid
temperature at which the vapors coming from a free
surface of the liquid will just ignite, producing a flash.
The pour point of a liquid fuel is the lowest fluid
temperature at which an oil or oil product will flow under
standard conditions.
The combustion of crude-oil products has some ash,
sulfur, and vanadium oxidizes (V
2
O
5
) problems. They are
expensive to remove.
15
Gaseous Fuels
Almost all gaseous fuels are either fossil fuels or
byproducts of fossil fuels. These fuels can be divided
into three general groups including natural gases,
manufactured fuel gases, and byproduct fuel gases.
The composition of a fuel gas is commonly expressed in
terms of the mole or volume fractions of the chemical
compounds found in it.
The heating value of any fuel gas is commonly expressed
in units of energy per unit volume (kJ /m
3
) but this value
is directly proportional to the gas density, which in turn is
directly proportional to the absolute pressure and
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.
16
Gaseous Fuels Heating Values
( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T
T
P
P
r
r
r
T ,
r
P
v
T , P
v
HHV HHV
If the volumetric heating values of the gas components at
some reference pressure P
r
and reference temperature T
r

are known, the volumetric heating vale of the gas
mixture, HHV
v
is obtained from the following equation:
Where (HHV
v
)
i
and V
i
are the volumetric high heating
value and the volumetric fraction of the i
th
gaseous
component, respectively. The following equation can be
used to convert the volumetric higher heating value at
the reference pressure and temperature to some other
pressure and temperature:
( ) ( ) ( )
i
r
T ,
r
P , i
n i
i
v
r
T ,
r
P
v
V HHV

=
=
=
1
mixture of HHV
17
P
T
MW
R
P
RT
m
V
v
u
= = =
A volumetric heating value HHV
v
at some temperature T
and pressure P can be converted into a gravimetric
heating value HHV
m
by multiplying the volumetric value
by the specific volume v of the gas at the same pressure
and temperature:
The specific volume of a gas mixture can be determined
from the molecular weight (MW) of the gas and the ideal-
gas equation of state, as follows:
( ) ( )
T , P
T , P
v m
v HHV HHV =
where R
u
is the universal gas constant.
18
Example IV-3.1
Calculate the higher heating value, in kJ/m
3
and kJ/kg,
at 10
o
C and 3 atm for gas mixture with the following
composition: 94.3% CH
4
, 4.2% C
2
H
6
, and 1.5% CO
2
.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3
3
3
3
645 37 0 015 0 910 64 042 0 030 37 943 0
052 17 01 44 015 0 071 30 042 0 043 16 943 0
0
910 64
030 37
m
kJ
, . , . , .
C
kmol / kg . . . . . . .
m / kJ
m / kJ ,
m / kJ ,
: Solution
mixture
v
v
v
v
= + + =
= + + =
=
=
=
HHV
: atm 1 and 20 At
MW
CO for HHV
H C for HHV
CH for HHV
: atm 1 and C 20 At
o
2
6 2
4
o
19
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
kg
kJ
,
kg
m
. kg / m , v HHV HHV
kg
m
.
kPa .
K .
kmol
kg
.
K . kmol
m . kPa
.
P
T
MW
R
v
m
kJ
,
.
.
,
T
T
P
P
kg
kJ
,
kg
m
. kg / m , v HHV HHV
kg
m
.
kPa .
K .
kmol
kg
.
K . kmol
m . kPa
.
P
T
MW
R
v
v m
u
r
r
r
T ,
r
P
v
mixture
v
v m
u
120 53 4543 0 920 116
4543 0
325 101 3
15 283
05 17
314 8
920 116
15 283
1 293
1
3
645 37
120 53 411 1 645 37
411 1
325 101
15 293
05 17
314 8
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
=

= =
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
= = =
HHV HHV
: atm 3 and C 10 At
o
20
Typical Fuel Gases
There are two types of natural gas that produced from
the decay of organic matter and that which has been
trapped deep in the earths crust since the earth was
formed.
Natural gas has the highest gravimetric heating value of
all fossil fuels, about 55,000 kJ/kg, or 37,000 kJ/m
3
at 1 atm
and 20
o
C.
Natural gas is commonly sold in units of therms ( 1 therm
= 100,000 Btu)
Natural gas can be converted to liquified natural gas
(LNG) at -127
o
C. Some companies use large underground
cavities, including domed, sealed aquifers to store LNG.
Natural Gas
21
Liquified petroleum gas (LPG), sometimes called refinery
gas, is composed of the light distillates of petroleum,
primarily propane and butane.
Water gas is a manufactured fuel gas that is produced by
alternately passing steam and air through a bed of
incandescent coke.
There are many proposed processes for producing
high-Btu and medium-Btu fuel gases from coal. The
high-Btu gas is commonly called synthetic natural gas or
simply SNG.
There are several fuel gases are called producer gas,
which are produced normally by burning low-grade coal
seams in the ground (in situ) with insufficient air for
complete combustion.
Manufactured Fuel Gases
22
Coke-oven gas is an excellent fuel gas with a high
heating value. The gas is essentially composed of the
volatile matter of a caking coal. The gas is a byproduct of
the industry that supplies coke to the steel industry.
Blast-furnace gas was a low-quality fuel gas resulting
from the steel industry. It was produced by burning natural
gas or other fuel with insufficient air.
Sewage gas has been used as a heating fuel in several
cities in the eastern U.S. since colonial times. Most of the
interest in sewage gas involves the utilization of animal
and vegetable wastes (biomass), particularly the waste
from large cattle feed lots, to generate the gas. Sewage
gas is almost pure methane, which is produced in the
decay process.
Byproduct Fuel Gases
23
Fluid-Moving Systems
Two basic fluid moving systems are employed in almost
all steam-generator systems. These are the pumps
needed to supply the working fluid to the steam
generator and the air compressors or fans needed to
supply combustion air to the furnace. An important
parameter for these systems is the mechanical efficiency
q
mech
, which is a measure of the machines ability to
transmit mechanical work to the fluid flowing through the
device. The mechanical efficiency for fluid-moving
systems is given by:
input work actual
input work ideal
=
mech
q
For a primer mover, such as a turbine, the mechanical
efficiency is:
output work ideal
output work actual
=
mech
q
24
The specific speed of a given pump is defined as the
angular velocity, in r/min, of a geometrically similar
pump, reduced in size, which will produce a volumetric
flow rate of 1 gal/min against a total pressure rise of 1
lb/in
2
. The specific speed of a given pump can be
determined from a known volumetric flow rate of Q
gal/min over a pressure rise of AP lb/in
2
at an angular
velocity of N r/min:
( )
4 1
3
2 1
/
/
s
P
NQ
N
A
=
The boiler feed pump supplies high-pressure liquid
water to the boiler and commonly operates over a wide
range of pressures. The centrifugal pump is commonly
used for this purpose and the performance of these
systems is usually expressed in terms of the specific
speed N
s
of the pump.
Boiler Feed Pumps
25
A condition that should be avoided during the operation of
any liquid pump. This condition is called cavitation.
Cavitation occurs when the liquid pressure on the surface of
the impeller falls below the vapor pressure of the liquid. This
causes vapor bubbles to form on the surface of the impeller
and these bubbles collapse as they move into a region of
higher pressure. The sudden collapse of these bubbles
causes severe impact loads on the impeller and this action
can cause severe erosion of the impeller surface. Not only
can cavitation physically damage the pump but it also
drastically lowers the mechanical efficiency of the pump and
makes it noisy.
Cavitation can be alleviated by increasing the fluid pressure
at the pump inlet. This pressure, minus the vapor pressure of
the liquid, is called the net positive suction head or NPSH,
which is commonly specified by the pump manufacturer.
Cavitation
26
There are two general types of air compressors
positive displacement air compressors and dynamic air
compressors.
In the positive-displacement compressor, the impeller
or piston forcibly displaces the air volume to compress
it. Common positive-displacement air compressors are
the reciprocating and rotary compressors.
In the dynamic air compressor, the high-velocity
impeller transfers momentum from the impeller to the
air. The two categories of dynamic air compressors are
the axial-flow (gas turbine) and centrifugal (fossil-fuel)
compressors.
Combustion-air fans (centrifugal) usually have very
high flow rates but total pressure rises of less than 15
to 20 kPa (2 to 3 psia).
Combustion Air Systems
27
Since the pressure across any fan is relatively small,
the air flow through the fan can be assumed to be
incompressible. The so-called fan or pump laws apply,
that is, for geometrically similar centrifugal machines,
operating at the same efficiencies, the pressure rise AP
across the device, the volumetric flow rate Q through
the device, and the input power requirements P are
related by the following equations:
Where is the fluid density, N is the angular velocity,
and D is the diameter of the impeller.
5 3
4 3
2 2
2
3
1
D N k P Q k P D N k P ND k Q A A = = = = ; ;
28
The air required for combustion can be supplied by a
natural-draft system, by a mechanical-draft system, or
as is usually the case, by a combination of these two
systems.
In the natural-draft system, the air flow is produced by
a driving force which is established by the difference in
the specific weights of the stack exhaust gas and the
atmospheric air. The driving force is equal to the
product of the specific-weight difference and the
effective height of the stack or chimney.
Increasing the stack height not only increases the
gas-flow rate but it improves the dispersion of exhaust
products. Stack heights from 700 to 1200 ft (210 to 365
m) are fairly common.
Draft Systems
29
There are two basic types of mechanical-draft systems,
the forced-draft and the induced-draft systems.
In the induced-draft (i-d) system, the fan draws
combustion products from the combustion chamber
and discharge them into the stack.
In the forced-draft (f-d) system, the fan pumps only
combustion air into the furnace.
For the f-d fan, we should consider both the air and
the water vapor separately. The volumetric flow rate for
f-d fan can be calculated as:
Volumetric Flow Rate of Forced-Draft Systems
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
016 18 97 28
1
. . P
T R
F
A
Q
Q
u
D . G . A
FD
FD
e
rate fuel
fan d - f for rate flow Volumetric
30
Example IV-3.2
A 600-MW
e
power plant burns Lafayette County ,
Missouri, coal with average moisture and ash fractions
of 14 and 11%, respectively. This plant operates with a
heat rate of 8863 Btu/kWh. An analysis of the refuse pit
gives a higher heating value of 2605 kJ/kg. An orsat
analysis of the flue gas gives 13.78% CO
2
, 4.9% O
2
, and
0.75%CO. Find (a) The thermal efficiency of the power
plant. (b) The coal rate. C) The capacity of the f-d fan, in
kg/min and ft
3
/min, if atmospheric conditions are 50
o
C,
0.93 atm, and a relative humidity of 50%.
( ) ( )
( )
3850 0
8863
3412 3412
.
a
: Solution
th
= = =
=
rate heat
plant of efficiency thermal The
Btu/kW 3412
Btu/kW rate heat The
th
h
q
q
31
( )
( )
( )( )( )
( )( )( )
ton/h 248.7 tonne/h 225.6 kg/h 225,600

kW 600,000

fuel of HHV burned - as
power thermal
rate Coal
kJ/kg. 2605 refuse of HHV : analysis Refuse kJ/kg. 33,160 HHV
S, 5.2% , N 1.3% , O 9.3% , H 5.6% C, 78.6% : analysis ultimate Coal
e
2 2 2
= = =

=

= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =
= =
11 0 14 0 1 160 33 3851 0
3600 1
58 0 0095 0 11 0 14 0 1 786 0
0095 0 11 0 1195 0
1195 0
9205 0
11 0
9205 0 0795 0 0 1 0 1
0795 0
778 32
2605
. . kg / kJ , kJ / kJ .
h / s s . kW / kJ
coal kg / burned C kg . . . . . C C C
coal kg / C kg . . . A R C
coal kg / R kg .
.
.
R / A
A
R
R kg / A kg . . .
R
C
.
R
A
R kg / C kg .
, HHV
HHV
R
C
b
th th e
e e
r ult b
r r
ult
r
r
C
R r
32
( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( )
min
kg
, . .
,
F
A
m
.
. . . . . / . . .
.
N CO % CO % / C N % .
F
A
% . . . . N %
. . . P
P .
. . P P
c
D . G . A
d f
ult , b
A.G.D
air dry
v
x , C
o
@ sat
v
460 38 803 9 04355 0 1
60
600 225
1
768 0
11 0 14 0 1 013 0 78 13 75 0 58 0 98 80 332 2
768 0
332 2
98 80 75 0 49 4 78 13 100
8946 0 93 0 7 14
622 0
7891 1 5 0
2 2 2
2
0 50
= +
|
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|

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=
|
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|

\
|
+ =
=
+
=
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
=


= =
= = =
=

|
.
|

\
|
=

rate coal fan d - f for rate flow mass Gas
coal air/kg kg 9.803

orsat from
air dry O/kg H kg 0.04355
0.8944 0.622
lb/in 0.8946
0.5; humidity relative : air cmbustion the in Moisture
2
2
e
e
|
|

33
( )
( )

min
ft
, ,
.
.
.
ft
in
atm .
atm
in / lbf
.
R
R . lbmol
lbf . ft
coal lbm
air lbm
.
h
min
ton
lbm
h
ton
.
. . P
T R
F
A
V
V
in
u
D . G . A
d f
d f
3
2
2 2
000 371 1
02 18
04355 0
79 28
1
144 93 0 7 14
460 122 1545
803 9
60
2000 7 248
02 18 79 28
1
=
|
.
|

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|
+
(
(
(
(
(

|
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|

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=
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+
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|

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|
=

rate coal
fan d - f for rate flow volumetric Gas
e

34
Combustion Methods and Systems
Gaseous fuels, including natural gas, are the easiest
fossil fuels to burn. The fuel gas needs little or no
preparation before combustion. It must be simply
proportioned, mixed with air, and ignited. This can be
accomplished in the following ways:
The atmospheric gas burner: The momentum of the
incoming gas is used to draw the primary air into the burner in
a process called aspiration.
The refractory gas burner: Commonly used in steam
generators. The combustion air is drawn in around the burner,
which has multiple gas jets that produce good mixing.
The fan-mix burner: The fuel gas is introduced from nozzles
mounted at the angle in a rotating spider burner.
Gas-Fired Systems
35
Oil is somewhat more difficult to burn than natural gas
because the burner must prepare the fuel for combustion
as well as proportion it, mix it with air, and burn it. There
are several ways to prepare the fuel oil for combustion:
Oil-Fired Systems
Vaporization or gasification:
The vaporization technique is
particularly well suited for the
light fuel oils.
Atomization of the oil droplets
can be accomplished with the
use of high-pressure air or
steam, or the liquid oil film can
be torn apart by centrifugal force.
Figure at right shows a common
rotary-cup (mechanical
atomization) burner.
36
The stoker furnace is one of the oldest type of coal
furnaces and is still in use, today. Its somewhat limited
capacity does not lend this type of furnace to large power
applications but it is widely used in industrial plants
where relatively limited amount of process steam are
desired.
Coal-Combustion Systems
Stoker Furnace
The cyclone furnace is a combination system that
employs a number of independent combustion chambers
(as many as 16 in a large power boiler) all of which feed
hot exhaust gas into a large, water-cooled boiler.
Cyclone Furnace
37
The pulverized-coal furnace burns finely powdered coal
and air in a gaseous torch. This combustion system can
produce much higher capacities than the stoker
furnaces, it gives fast response since there is little
unburned fuel in the combustion chamber, it reduces the
amount of excess air required for combustion and this
reduces the NO
x
emissions, it can burn all ranks of coal
from anthracitic to lignitic, and it permits combination
firing (refers to the capacity of burning coal, oil, or
natural gas in the same burner). Normally, only one type
of fuel is burned at a time although two different fuels
can be simultaneously burned for short periods of time.
The pulverized-coal furnace finds widespread application
in coal-fired power plants.
Pulverized-Coal Furnace
38
The fluidized-bed furnace is a radically new type of
combustion system that has been under development
and testing during the last 30 years. In this unit, crushed
coal and either crushed dolomite or limestone are mixed
in a bed that is then levitated by the combustion air
entering the bottom of the furnace. The boiler evaporator
tubes are immersed directly in the fluidized bed and the
direct contact between the burning coal particles and the
water tubes produces very high heat-transfer rates,
reducing the size of the unit. This arrangement (see Culp
text Figure 4.18 on your course pack) also produces very
low combustion temperatures, and traps the sulfur in the
furnace, thereby permitting the utilization of high-sulfur
coal.
Fluidized-Bed Combustion System
39
Steam Generators
The steam generator or boiler is a combination of
systems and equipment for the purpose of converting
chemical energy from fossil fuels into thermal energy
and transferring the resulting thermal energy to a
working fluid, usually water, for use in high-temperature
processes or for partial conversion to mechanical energy
in a turbine.
In most modern large power plants, one boiler is used
to supply steam to one steam-turbine generator unit. The
boiler complex includes the ductwork and air-handling
equipment, the fuel-handling and processing equipment,
the furnace, the water supply and treatment system, the
steam drums and piping, the exhaust gas system, and
the pollution control systems including scrubber and
electrostatic precipitator or baghouse filter.
40
The heat transfer sections of a large boiler include the
primary heat transfer surfaces (the evaporator,
superheater, and the reheater) and the secondary heat
transfer surfaces (the air preheater and the economizer).
An energy flow diagram for a typical large steam
generator is shown in the figure below.
41
Steam boilers can be classified many ways but there are
actually two basic types of steam generators, depending
on the orientation of the water-steam and hot-gas flow
paths. These two general classifications are the fire- tube
boilers and the water-tube boilers.
The common fire-tube boiler is essentially composed of a
water-filled pressure vessel containing a number of tubes
which are the passage-ways for the hot exhaust gas and
through which heat is transferred from the hot gas to the
water in the vessel. This system is the simplest and probably
the least expensive of all the steam generators.
In the fire-tube system, the high-pressure water is placed on
the external surface of the tubes. Since most pressure-vessel
codes will limit the external pressure on a tube to half that for
internal pressure, the fire-tube systems are limited to relatively
low steam pressures.
Boiler Types and Classifications
42
The fire-tube steam generator is commonly employed in
small industrial plants, and these systems can be
purchased in the form of complete operation package.
Figure below shows a typical two-pass, packaged, fire-
tube steam generator.
43
The water-tube boilers are best suited for high-
pressure, high-capacity steam generators. The high-
pressure water and the steam flows from tube headers or
drums through tubes in the furnace walls or in the tube
bundles mounted in the exhaust gas duct.
The water-tube steam generators may be classified as either
natural-circulation systems or forced-circulation boilers.
In a natural-circulation boiler the saturated water flows from
the steam drum high in the boiler, through the downcomer
tubes to the bottom or mud drum.
In a forced-circulation boiler, the fluid is pumped through the
evaporator section of the boiler.
The most widely used forced-circulation boiler system in the
U.S. is the universal-pressure or Benson boiler.
44
Benson Boiler
In the Benson boiler, the
water is pumped to about
35 MPa (5000 psia) in the
main feed pump. The
compressed water is then
piped to the economizer
section, through he
evaporator tubes, through a
transition section, and
finally through a convection
superheater, where it is
exhausted to the turbine at
a pressure around 24 Mpa
(3500 psia).
CS convection superheater
E economizer
FP feed pump
O steam to service
T tube evaporating sections
TS transition section
45
The primary heat-transfer surfaces in the boiler include the
evaporator section, the superheater section, and the reheat
section if the power cycle employs reheat.
The evaporative surface is usually located in the hottest part of
the boiler near the combustion zone because the boiling water in
the tubes protects the tube material from excessive
temperatures.
Superheater sections are the heat-transfer surfaces in which
heat is transferred to the saturated steam to increase its
temperature and available energy. Superheaters are particularly
important in the production of turbine steam to reduce the
moisture content of the steam as it passes through the turbine.
The reheat section of a large boiler is that portion of the boiler
in which all of the steam exhausting from the high-pressure
turbine is returned for additional superheat before it is sent to
the intermediate-pressure turbine or turbine section.
Primary Boiler Heat-Transfer Surfaces
46
The secondary heating surfaces recover heat from the
flue gas after it has passed over the primary heat-transfer
surfaces. In order to achieve a high boiler efficiency, it is
desirable to lower the temperature of the exhaust gas as
much as possible. There are two kinds of secondary
heat-transfer surfaces, the economizer and the air
preheater.
The economizer (normally a cross-flow heat exchanger)
transfers heat from the flue gas to the incoming boiler
water. It has been estimated that an increase of 6 to 7
o
C
in the temperature of the feedwater produced from the
heat recovery in the economizer will increase the boiler
efficiency about 1%.
The air preheater transfers thermal energy from the
exhaust gas to the cold combustion air.
Secondary Boiler Heat-Transfer Surfaces
47
There are two broad classes of air preheater, the
regenerative heaters and the recuperative heaters.
The recuperative heater is a plate-type or tubular heat
exchanger operating as either a counteflow or crossflow unit.
A shot-cleaning system, rather than a soot-blower system, is
commonly used to clean the flue-gas side of these heat
exchangers.
The regenerative air preheater, or Ljungstrum heater,
employs a large rotor assembly with approximately half of the
element mounted in the exhaust gas duct and the other half in
the supply air duct. The rotating element, which usually turns
2 to 4 r/min, contains many corrugated laminas that are
alternately heated by the flue gas and cooled by the
combustion air.
The air preheaters are useful in other ways than just
improving the overall efficiency of the unit, it reduces the time
required for fuel ignition, thereby improving fuel combustion.
48
One problem associated with any coal-fired boiler
system, particularly a pulverized-coal system, is the ash
content of the flue gas and the resulting buildup of ash or
slag deposits on the heat-transfer surfaces of the boiler,
both the primary and the secondary surfaces. It is
common practice in coal-fired boilers to incorporate
devices, called soot blowers, to remove the ash deposits
from the tubes (as shown in the figure below).
49
Most of the modern steam generators are rated in terms
of steam capacity (usually lbm/h) along with the steam
outlet pressure and temperature.
The figure of merit for operation of a boiler is the boiler
or steam-generator efficiency q
sg
. This quantity is defined
as the fraction the input chemical energy that is
transferred to the working fluid. The boiler efficiency
commonly ranges from 70 to 90%.
There are two ways to calculate the boiler efficiency, the
direct method and the indirect method.
Boiler Rating and Performance
50
The total heat added to the working fluid in the
economizer, evaporator, superheater, and reheater
sections of the boiler is evaluated and this quantity is
divided by the total fuel-input energy:
Direct Method to Calculate Boiler Efficiency
( ) ( )
( )
reheater. the to in and out steam of enthalpies specific the are and
r superheate the to in water and out steam of enthalpies specific the are and
generator steam the to feed boiler of rate flow mass the is
reheater the to steam of rate flow mass the is
rate, flow mass fuel the is
where

energy input fuel total
fluid working the to added energy total
Efficiency Boiler
sg
3 4
1 2
3 4 1 2
100
100
h h
h h
m
m
m
%
HHV m
h h m h h m
%
s
r
f
fuel f
r s

+
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =q
51
It is assumed that the total fuel-input energy is either
transferred to the working fluid or is lost in a number of
ways. There are a total six boiler heat losses and all of
them are calculated in terms of energy lost per unit mass
of fuel (kJ/kg). Using this system, the steam-generator
efficiency becomes:
Indirect Method to Calculate Boiler Efficiency
%
HHV
HHV
%
fuel
fuel
100
100

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
losses total

fuel of value heating higher
losses total - fuel valueof heating higher
Efficiency Boiler
sg
q
52
The dry-gas loss (DGL) is that portion of the boiler losses
that can be attributed to the combustion air supplied to
the steam generator.
1. The Dry-Gas Loss (DGL)
( )
( )
analyses. ultimate burned - as and refuse the from determined
as fraction mass hydrogen and moisture, refuse, the are and , , and
C e, temperatur gas - flue outlet
C e, temperatur air inlet
air) of as thesame be to (assumed gas flue of heat specific
fuel /kg gas flue dry of kg ,
where

DGL
o
o
2
2
2
0035 1
9 0 1
9 0 1
H M R
T
T
C kJ/kg. . c
H M R .
F
A
w
T T c H M R .
F
A
T T c w
out , g
in , g
o
p
D . G . A
g
in , g out , g p
D . G . A
in , g out , g p g
=
=
= =
+
|
.
|

\
|
=

+
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
53
The moisture loss (ML) includes the loss due to
vaporizing the moisture in the fuel and the loss due to the
latent heat of the moisture produced from the combustion
of the hydrogen in the fuel:
2. The Moisture Loss (ML)
( )( )
in , g out , g w s
o
out , g
in , g out , g w s
o
out , g
in , g w
out , g s
w s
T . T . . h h
T
T . T . h h
T
kg / kJ T h
kg / kJ
T h
h h H M
187 4 926 1 6 2492
300
187 4 093 2 2442
300
9
2
+ ~
+ ~
=
=
+ =

C, to equal or than less is If

C, exceeds If
, e, temperatur gas inlet the at water of enthalpy specific
gas), flue the in vapor water the of pressure partial e approximat (the
kPa 7 of pressure a and at steam d superheate of enthalpy specific
where
ML
54
Another but much smaller moisture loss is the moisture-
in-combustion-air loss (MCAL), it is at least an order of
magnitude lower than the moisture and dry-gas losses for
most fuels.
3. The Moisture-in-Combustion-air Loss (MCAL)
( )
in , g sat
sat atm
sat
w , p
in , g out , g w . p
D . G . A
T P
P P
P .
c
T T c
F
A
at vapor water the of pressure saturation the is
humidity relative the is
and
C kJ/kg. 1.926 or vaor, water of heat specific the is
air dry /kg O H kg in air, entering the of ratio humidity the
where
MCAL
o
2
=
=

=
=
=

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
e
e
e
622 0
55
The unburned-carbon loss (UCL) is the boiler loss
associated with the appearance of carbon in the refuse.
This loss is equal to the product of the mass of unburned
carbon per unit mass of fuel in the refuse (C
r
) and the
higher heating value of the carbon (HHV)
carbon
:
4. The Unburned-Carbon Loss (UCL)
( )( )
carbon of value heating higher the is
refuse the in fuel of mass unit per carbon unburned of mass the is
where
UCL
=
=
=
carbon
r
carbon r
HHV
C
HHV C
56
The incomplete-combustion loss (ICL) is the energy lost
as the result of the formation of carbon monoxide instead
of carbon dioxide in the combustion process. The ICL can
be determined from the following equation:
5. The Incomplete-Combustion Loss (ICL)
( )( )( ) ( ) | |
( )( )
( )( )
( )
analysis orsat the from directly value the is
analysis orsat the from directly value the is
fuel of mass per burned carbon of mass the is
where
12.01
ICL
=
=
=
+
=
+
=
2
2 2
23630 01 28
CO %
CO %
C
kg / kJ
CO % CO %
CO % C
CO % CO %
HHV C CO % .
b
b CO b
57
The radiation and unaccounted loss (RL) cannot be
explicitly calculated, but is estimated from the data
presented in the Figure 4.31 below. The data from this
graph give the radiation loss as a function of the actual
steam output and the maximum design output, in MBtu/h,
as well as the number of cooled walls in the furnace.
( )
( )
fuel
HHV
RL

=
4.31 Figure from factor
6. The Radiation Loss (RL)
58
Example IV-3.3
Using the data from Example IV-3.2 perform an energy
balance for the system and calculate the boiler
efficiency. Assume that the boiler has three sides that
are water-cooled and the system is operating at 10% of
full power during the boiler test.
( )
( )
( ) | |( )( )
fuel kg kJ
T T c H M R
F
A
DGL
C T coal kg kg H kg kJ HHV
coal kg kg C air dry kg O H kg coal kg kg C
MW P R M C T
Solution
in out p
D G A
o
out fuel
b r
e
o
in
/ .
. . . . . .
.
. , / . / ,
, / . , / . , / .
, , . , . ,
:
. .
9 2427
50 288 0035 1 042 0 9 14 0 1195 0 0 1 803 9
9 0 1
: (DGL) loss gas - Dry
288 042 0 and ; 870 24
58 0 04355 0 0095 0
600 1195 0 14 0 50 3.2, - IV Example From
2
2
2
=
+ =

+
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = =
= = =
= = = =
e
59
( )( )
( )( )
( ) | |( )
( )
( )( )( )
( )
h
MBtu
kWh
Btu
fuel kg / kJ .
. .
.
. , C , ICL
fuel kg / kJ . . , C , UCL
fuel kg / kJ . . . .
T T c
F
A
MCAL
fuel kg / kJ .
. . . . .
T . T . . H M
h h H M ML
b
r
in out w , p
D . G . A
in out
w s
5318
4 707
78 13 75 0
75 0
58 0 630 23 630 23
4 311 0095 0 778 32 778 32
7 195 50 288 926 1 04355 0 803 9
1 1470
50 187 4 288 926 1 6 2492 042 0 9 14 0
187 4 926 1 6 2492 9
9
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
+
=
+
=
= = =
= =

|
.
|

\
|
=
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ =
8863 kW 600,000 power input boiler (max.) Design
: (RL) loss Radiation
%CO %CO
%CO
: (ICL) loss combustion - Incomplete
: (UCL) loss carbon - Unburned
: (MCAL) loss air - combustion - in - Moisture
: (ML) loss Moisture
2
e
60
( )
( )
( )
( )
% . %
,
. ,
fuel kg / kJ . , . ,
HHV
fuel kg / kJ . . . . . . .
fuel kg / kJ . , . HHV .
. . .
h / MBtu . .
h / MBtu .
sg
fuel
fuel
6 77 100
780 24
9 225 19
efficiency generator Steam
9 225 19 1 5554 780 24
losses total steam the fer to heat trans Useful
1 5554 6 441 4 707 4 311 7 195 1 1470 9 2427
RL ICL UCL MCAL ML DGL losses Total
: balance Energy
6 441 780 24 0178 0 0178 0 RL
0178 0 81 0 022 0
walls cooled - water 3 for factor correction
walls cooled 0 for factor 4.31 Figure from Factor
4 425 4254 1 0 power output boiler Actual
4254 5320 8 0 power output boiler (max.) Design
Then 80%. efficiency boiler that the Assume
= = q
= =
=
= + + + + + =
+ + + + + =
= = =
= =

=
= =
= =
=