Complex machines classified as :

MOBILE moves themselves in doing useful work such as transportation. STATIONARY fixed while doing useful work such as production machinery PORTABLE can be carried by the user such as power tools also be classified as: Prime Movers that converts chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical energy which is used to propel the entire vehicle. Secondary Movers because it receives energy directly or indirectly from a generator. Power Driven or power absorption unit that utilizes energy to do useful work.
Bucheles Laws of Machines express relationships between design and use of machine. Newtons Laws of Motion express relationship between the matter and motion. 1st Laws of Machines states that :Any operation performed by human hands can be performances by a machine or series of machine 2nd Laws of Machines states that :Any operation performed by a machine or the series of machine can be done faster and cheaper and with an improvement in quality of product by another machine or series of machines 3rd Laws of Machines states that :Any uncontrolled mechanized, profitable produced product or service will be in over production.

Electric Motor as the Power Source Great flexibility and cleanliness Power easily be increased or decreased to meet varying load reliable, high efficiency, operate quietly Easy to install, use and maintain Has high starting torque and requires just a coupling without a clutch and thus gives quick start Greater power to weight ratio than engine

I.Combustion Engine as the Power Source

Lower power to weight ratio than electric motor Good variable speed-torque characteristics Power flow not smooth and continuous Has low starting torque and requires a clutch so that it can gain speed and power before engagement Gives high torsional vibrations that is harmful if transmitted without suitable damping to the driven machine

Air or Hydraulic Motor as the Power Source Used where electric motors are impractical for lack of speed variation or because of wet or explosive environments. Has high starting torque and operate with little vibration even at high speed

Basic Aspects of Design 1. Design Concept--Function, safety, reliability and maintainability 2. Design of Elements--Size, shape, material, life 3. Manufacturability--Machining process to achieve optimal design 4. Cost--Materials, construction, maintenance

4 basic modes of failure 1. Lack of strength (rupture and destruction) 2. Lack of rigidity (excess elastic deformation) 3. Lack of stability (buckling or overturning) 4. Wear (removal of vital surface material)
STRENGTH - Ability to resist loads (forces, bending moments, torques) and is expressed in terms of ultimate strength, yield strength and fatigue strength. Maximum induced stress <= allowable working stress RIGIDITY - Ability to resist change of form. Lack of rigidity leads to interference between parts and premature failure due to wear and fatigue. Maximum operating deflection <= allowable elastic deflection

STABILITY - Ability to resist displacement or restore its initial condition. Laws of equilibrium (i.e.M,F,T =0) applies to make sure that the machine system is stable ! Maximum load <= safe load WEAR Gradual abrading of surfaces in contact ,relative motion between them. Maximum wear <= permissible wear Machine member designed for strength seek to attain : minimum cost, suitable combination of size and shape, material to withstand loadings Designed of machine element for strength involves : 1.Determining load direction, magnitude, application, frequency and history 2.Selecting material mechanical properties 3.Evaluating each mode in which it fails 4.Applying analytical creative skills so that it has enough strength to avoid the failure Common modes of failures : 1. Yielding due to static or steadily applied loads -occurs when loads are higher than available static strength, parts fails by changing shape. 2. Fatigue fracture due to cyclic loads occurs when loads are lower than available static load, parts fails abruptly.

Types of Wear 1. Adhesive Wear - occurs when two solids are in sliding contact. 2. Abrasive Wear - caused by abrasive particles carried by the lubricating oil between two rubbing surfaces. 3. Corrosive Wear - chemical action that causes destruction of metal surfaces. 4. Fatigue Wear occurs when a surface is repeatedly stressed and unstressed (e.g. pitting of gear tooth). Methods of Reducing Wear 1. Replacement design for easy and inexpensive replacement of vital machine elements, notably bearings. 2. Dissimilar Materials use dissimilar materials for parts in sliding contact (e.g. steel with brass). 3. Compensation adjustment and take-up provision for automatic compensation (e.g. spring loaded tensioner). 4. Metallizing coating of the surface of base metal. 5. Hard-facing welding the facing edge subjected to excessive wear. 6. Lubricating keeping sliding metals apart through the use of a lubricant. 7. Seals and Gaskets retaining lubricants from dust, dirt, and contaminations.

AXLES AND SHAFTS

An axle is use to support the vehicles weight on the ground. Dead axles may rotate with the wheels but do not transmit power. Life axles transmit torque to provide mobility for self-propelled vehicle. A shaft is a device that supports pulleys, sprockets, gears, cranks, levers, wheels, and other attachments and often transmits power between them. The shaft itself is mounted on bearings so that it can turn freely in the housing. It may be subjected to reverse flexural loadings or torque loadings or more likely both. A countershaft is an intermediate shaft placed between a driving and a driven shaft to make possible variations in speed ratio. A flexible shaft permits direct transmission of power between 2 axles at an angle to each other. A shaft must be design for both its rigidity and strength. Designers must therefore be able to analyse the bending and torsional deflections on the shaft. Designers must also be able to calculate the stresses, often caused by a combination of loads, at various points on the shaft and be able to evaluate these stresses by means of a suitable theory of failure. Excessive deflection may cause wearing on the available bearings, gear tooth wear on the available gears on the shaft and shaft vibrations. Keys, pins, snap rings, and clamp collars are used on shafts to secure rotating elements. Shoulders are made available on shafts to axially positioned gears, pulleys, sprockets and bearings.

 Shaft materials are generally cold-drawn or machine from hot-rolled, plaincarbon steel to minimized deflection. Cold drawn raises the value of ultimate and yield strength of steel. Alloy steels are used where toughness, shock resistance and greater strength are needed. Carburizing grade steels are used if surface wear is more important than strength. Carburizing only hardening the surface with the inside portion of the material is left to its original condition. 8 predominant factors in choosing a shaft and axle material 1. Rigidity or stiffness (ability to resist change of form) 2. Strength (ability to resist load) 3. Wear resistance 4. Corrosion resistance 5. Weight & Cost (expense of production) 6. Size and availability 7. Machinability Positive drive transmission : Any drive that dependent on the positive contact of inter-meshing teeth or other parts. Negative drive transmission : Any drive that dependent on the frictional contact that exist between the driving and driven surfaces.

o Gears predominates because of their versatility (permits power transmission over a wide speed range), compactness, and high transmission efficiency. But they are generally used for short center distances. o Chains are suitable for high speed and high torque transmission since they have many teeth engaged on the sprocket that is in contrast to gear where only one or two pairs of teeth are engaged at one time, o Belts are suitable for high speed and low torque transmission. They do not need lubrication as compared to gears and chains but required more frequent tightening to prevent slippage at high torque. Hydraulic drives are used in preference to mechanical systems when : 1. Power to be transmitted is far apart for chains and belts 2. High torque at low speed is required 3. Very Compact unit is needed 4. Smooth transmission and free vibration is required 5. Easy control and direction is necessary 6. Output speed must be varied steplessly

Disadvantages: Need for a separate power unit (pump, sump, drive motor, and cooler), higher initial cost and lower transmission efficiency. Belt drive transfer power from one shaft to another by using a belt and connecting pulleys on the shafts. Belt drives are smooth running, quiet, resistant to momentary surges or overloads, clean (requiring no lubrication), and inexpensive to maintain. Their disadvantages, compared with chains and gears, are lower strength and durability. Belts are used when large distances between shaft makes gears impractical or when the designated speed is too high for chain drives 4 main belt types : Flat, V, round and timing. Flat-belt drives produces very little noise and absorb more torsional vibration from the system than other belt drives. Satisfactory at high speed and relative low power. Transmission efficiency of around 98%, which is closed to that of a gear drive. V-belt drive can transmit more power than a flat drive however its transmission efficiency varies between 70 to 96%. Timing belt drive is constructed with ribs and teeth underside with transmission efficiency ranges from 97 to 99%.

A chain is a power transmission element made as a series of pin-connected links that engages mating toothed wheels known as sprockets. Power is transmitted solely by the tension side of the chain (i.e F1) while the slack side of the chain (i.e F2) is zero. Adequate tension is important for chain drive. Chain life will be shorten if chains are run too tight or too loose. A chain that is too tight may carry an unnecessary additional load. A chain that is too loose causes surge in the slack strand which will result to wear and fatigue failure.

Advantages of chains compared with belt drives: 1.Positive drive (no slip) and therefore greater power capacity. 2.Greater transmission efficiency because of no slip. 3.Synchronized motions. 4.Less sensitive to dust and humidity and not adversely affected by sun, oil or grease. 5.Smaller transverse shaft load since power is transmitted solely by tension side. 6.Requires smaller and less costly bearings and shafts because of smaller traverse shaft load. 7.Endless, can be set at any required length.

Disadvantages of chains compared with belt drives : 1.Require frequent or in some cases continual lubrication. 2.Accept very little misalignment and so should be used only on parallel and horizontal shafts. 3.Provide no overload protection because they will not slip (for this reason, chain sprockets are sometimes equipped with shear pins as overload protection). 4.Cost more for the same application. 6 main types of chain : Roller chain, Rollerless chain, Silent chain, Detachable link chain, Printle chain, and Block Chain. The roller chain is the most widely used type for transmitting power. Roller chains have high transmission efficiency because of the ability of the rollers to rotate when contacting sprocket teeth. Even number of links could be connected together the available pink link. Odd number of links could be connected together with the use of an offset link. Offset links wear faster than straight pin and should be avoided

CHORDAL ACTION Chordal action is the rise and fall of each link as it engages a sprocket that causes repeated chain & speed variations. Chordal action and speed variation decreases as the number of teeth in the input sprocket is increased and in most application become negligible with 21 teeth or more teeth in the sprocket. The line of approach is not tangent to the pitch circle of the sprocket. The line makes contact below the tangent line and is then lifted up to the top of the sprocket at a distance of (R - r). LUBRICATION OF CHAIN Proper lubrication is needed to 1.Reduce wear 2.Protect against rust, corrosion, and heat 3.Prevent seizing of pins and bushings 4.Cushions shock load Methods of lubrication 1.Drip feed lubrication 2.Shallow bath lubrication 3.Disc or slinger lubrication 4.Oil steam lubrication

Gear are toothed, cylindrical wheels used for transmitting motion and power from one rotating shaft to another. The teeth of a driving gear mesh accurately in the spaces between teeth on a driven gear. The driving teeth push on the driven teeth, exerting a force perpendicular to the radius of the gear. Thus torque is transmitted and because the gear is rotating, power is also transmitted. Gears are the most rugged and durable means of power transmission. They have transmission efficiency as high as 98% and are generally the most costly means of power transmission. 4 main types of gears : spur, helical, bevel, and worm gears. Spur gears have teeth that are straight and arranged parallel to the axis the shaft that carries the gear. The faces of the gear teeth have involute curve geometry that makes it possible for two gears to operate together smooth with positive power transmission. The shafts carrying the gears are parallel. Helical gears have teeth that are arranged at an angle known as helix angle with respect to the axis of the shaft. parallel to the axis of rotation. Typical helix angles are 10 to 30. The helical gear operate more smoothly with lower stresses than equivalent spur gear and can be made smaller for a given power transmission capacity. One disadvantage is that an axial force known as a thrust force is generated in addition to the driving force that acts tangent to the teeth,

This thrust force need to be considered when selecting bearings that will hold to support the shaft. The shafts carrying the gears are parallel. However cross helical gears with 45 helix angles have their shafts operates at 90 to each other. Bevel gears have teeth arranged on conical surface being wider at the bottom and narrower at the top of the cone. The shafts carrying the gears are perpendicular to each another. The teeth can straight gear (similar to spur gear ) or spiral gear (similar to helical gear). The spiral bevel gear operate more smoothly than straight bevel gear and can be made smaller for a given power transmission efficiency. Worm gears have teeth similar to screw thread and can either be straight like spur gear teeth or spiral like helical gear. They are used to accomplish a rather large speed reduction ratio but have somewhat lower transmission efficiency because of extensive rubbing contact between the gears. The shafts carrying the gear are perpendicular to each other.

INVOLUTE CURVE The teeth of spur gears are generated on the basis of involute curve so that the teeth comes in good tooth with the two meshed gears. When two such gear teeth are in mesh and rotating, there is a constant angular velocity ratio between them. The resultant action of the two gears is very smooth. If not, there would be some speeding up and slowing down during engagement, with the resulting accelerations causing vibration, noise, and dangerous torsional oscillations.

Parallel helical gear set is used for transmitting power between two parallel shafts. Crossed helical gear set is used for transmitting power between two nonparallel and nonintersecting shafts. Herringbone gear refers to a helical gear having half its face cut with teeth of one hand and the other half with the teeth of opposite hand. Crossed helical gears have a contact point rather the line of contact as in most regular gear sets. Parallel helical gear is normally preferred because it has a much higher power transmitting capacity than the crossed helical gear of similar size.

Advantages of helical gears over spur gears : Having more teeth in contact with gradual and uniform load being transferred (i.e. not sudden) as successive teeth come in engagement. Thus make the gear to run more smoothly and more quietly. The lower average load per tooth allows a greater power transmission capacity for a given size of gear, or a smaller gear can be designed to carry the same power. Disadvantages of helical gears over spur gears : Greater cost and has an axial thrust load as the result of the inclined arrangement of the teeth. The bearings that hold the shaft carrying the helical gear must be capable of reacting against thrust load.

Straight bevel gears are the most economical among the various available types of bevel gears. They are used primarily for relatively low-speed applications with pitch line velocities up to 1000 ft./min, where smoothness and quietness are not important. Bevel gears are non-interchangeable and are therefore made and replaced as matched pinion-gear sets. The size and shape of the teeth are defined at the large end, on the back cones. The pitch angles (also called pitch cone angles) are pitch cones joining at the apex. Spring is a mechanical element that exhibit elastic deformation when loaded, and recover its initial configuration when the load is removed. It is a resilient device specially configured to exert desired forces or torques, to provide flexibility, or to store potential energy of strain for release at a later time. Functions : 1. Control of forces on shock loading or vibrations as in vehicle suspension 2. Restraint of motion as in valves of internal combustion engine 3. Exertion of forces as in brakes and clutches 4. Storage of mechanical energy as in timing devices 5. Measurement of forces as in scales 6. Compensation for heat expansion of machine parts

BUCKLING AND SURGING Buckling or elastic instability may occur for long and skinny helical compression spring that is subjected to axial external compressive loads. Surging or erratic operation may occur if the axial operating frequency on the helical compression spring approach the axial natural frequency of the helical compression spring. The following graph is to be used to check if the designed helical compression spring is safe from the failure due to buckling. The coordinate for slenderness and critical deflection ratio should falls on the safe (stable) area of the respective graphs. Screws are used both in hold things together as fasteners and to move loads as so called power screws. A bolt is a threaded fastener designed to be inserted through hole in the mating members and to be secured by tightening a nut from the end opposite end the head of the bold. A screw is a threaded fastener designed to be inserted through a hole in one member to be joined and into a threaded hole in the mating member. A stud refers to a headless fastener, threaded on both ends and screwed into the holes in the one of the members being connected. Flat or plain washer is used to increase the area of contact between the bolt head or nut and clamp part Split lock washer act as a spring under the nut and helps to prevent spontaneous loosening of nut due to vibration. Power screws are designed to convert rotary motion to linear motion and to exert the necessary force to move a machine element along a desired path.

POWER SCREW A power screw or sometimes called linear actuator or translation screw, is a threaded shaft with an attached thrust collar at one end and the other end that engaged to a mating nut. With suitable constraint, either the nut may be rotated to cause axial translation of the threaded shaft (screw) or the screw may be rotated to cause axial translation of the nut. Common examples include jack screws, C-clamps, vises, lead screws for machine tools, and positioners for control rod drives. Various thread forms are available to maximize axial load-carrying capacity and to minimize frictional drag. The most common thread forms are the square thread, the modified square thread, the ACME thread, and the buttress thread.

Square thread provides the best strength and efficiency and also eliminates any radial component forces between the screw and nut. However, it is more difficult to cut because of its perpendicular face. Modified square thread (include angle, 2 = 10 and thread angle =5) improves the manufacturing ability of it equivalent square thread. ACME thread (include angle, 2 = 29 and thread angle = 14.5) is easy to manufacture and allows the use of a split nut that can be squeezed radially to adjust for wear. BUTTRESS thread provides greater strength for unidirectional loads.

A ball screw is used to minimized thread-friction drag and the sliding friction between screw and nut threads. A ball screw can support greater load than that of ordinary power screws of identical diameter. The smaller size and lighter weight are the advantages. Cleanliness and thin film of lubricant are important to ball screw operations. Mounting parts are used on shafts to attach the hub of gears, pulleys, sprockets, and flywheels. Some of the common mounting parts include setscrews, keys, pins, and splines. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Couplings are used to connect two shafts. They can be grouped as rigid or flexible couplings. A rigid coupling locks the two shafts together giving no provision for misalignments between shafts nor does reducing shock or vibration between the two shafts. In the design of any mounting parts or couplings, rated shaft torque must be transmitted without slip and premature failure must no be induced in any part of the operating machine. A - Setscrews Setscrews is used on shaft-to-hub connections that are for light service only. Generally, a hole is drilled radially through the hub and sometimes a short distance into the shaft. The hole in the hub section is threaded, and a setscrew is inserted and turned until it is firmly seated on the shaft.

Setscrews are available in various head and point configurations. Headless type is more popular because it can be flush mounted with the hub surface and gives no work hazard when the shaft is rotating. B- Keys Most common used key types are square and rectangular sections. The grooves made in the shaft-hub connections in which the keys fit are known as the keyways or key seats. The advantages of keys are simplicity, low cost, and ease of assembly. The disadvantage lies in the weakening of the shaft due to the presence of keyway. Induced T by the shaft lead to a shaft force F acting on one half side of key and a hub reaction F on the other half side of the key. This induced force on the key and keyways leads to 4 possible modes of failure : 1.the key may fail in direct shear 2.the side of the key may be crushed 3.the side of the keyway in the shaft may be crushed 4.the side of the keyway in the hub may be crushed Modes (3) and (4) cannot be tolerated and are avoided by using higher strength materials in both shaft and hubs. Therefore, designing of key is based on Modes (1) and (2).